The Australian 2019/2020 Black Summer Bushfires: Analysis of the Pathology, Treatment Strategies and Decision Making About Burnt Livestock

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 15 February 2022 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.790556 The Australian 2019/2020 Black Summer Bushfires: Analysis of the Pathology, Treatment Strategies and Decision Making About Burnt Livestock Brendan D. Cowled 1,2*, Melanie Bannister-Tyrrell 1 , Mark Doyle 3 , Henry Clutterbuck 3 , Jeff Cave 4 , Alison Hillman 1 , Karren Plain 2 , Caitlin Pfeiffer 5 , Michael Laurence 6 and Michael P. Ward 2 1 Ausvet Pty Ltd., Bruce, ACT, Australia, 2 Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia, 3 South East Local Land Services, Goulburn, NSW, Australia, 4 Biosecurity and Agriculture Services, Agriculture Victoria, Wodonga, VIC, Australia, 5 Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Science, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia, 6 Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney, NSW, Australia Edited by: Bouda Vosough Ahmadi, In 2019/2020, Australia experienced a severe bushfire event, with many tens of European Commission for the Control of Foot and Mouth Disease thousands of livestock killed or euthanized. Little systematic research has occurred to (EuFMD), Italy understand livestock bushfire injuries, risk factors for injury, or how to make decisions Reviewed by: about management of bushfire-injured livestock. Addressing this research gap is Cheryl Waldner, University of Saskatchewan, Canada important as there is an increasing bushfire incidence globally. This paper presents Mette S. Herskin, qualitative research findings about bushfire-injured and killed livestock in the south-east Aarhus University, Denmark of Australia after the 2019/2020 Australian bushfires. We describe observed pathology, *Correspondence: treatments used, and risk factors for injury, then use

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alia after the 2019/2020 Australian bushfires. We describe observed pathology, *Correspondence: treatments used, and risk factors for injury, then use thematic analysis to understand Brendan D. Cowled brendan@ausvet.com.au decision making about managing fire-injured livestock. Livestock injured by the fires showed pathology predominantly associated with the common integument (feet, hooves Specialty section: and skin) and signs of acute respiratory damage. It could take several days for the full This article was submitted to Veterinary Epidemiology and extent of burns to become apparent, leaving prognostic doubt. Treatment strategies Economics, included immediate euthanasia, salvage slaughter, retention for later culling, treatment a section of the journal and recovery on farm, hospitalization and intensive treatment, or no intervention. Risk Frontiers in Veterinary Science factors reported for livestock injury included lack of warnings about an impending Received: 06 October 2021 Accepted: 17 January 2022 fire, the type and amount of vegetation around livestock and the weather conditions Published: 15 February 2022 on the day the fire reached livestock. Moving stock to an area with little vegetation Citation: before fire arrived was seen as protective. Decision making regarding injured livestock Cowled BD, Bannister-Tyrrell M, Doyle M, Clutterbuck H, Cave J, appeared influenced by three main themes: (1) observations on the severity of pathology, Hillman A, Plain K, Pfeiffer C, clinical signs and level of prognostic doubt, (2) pre-existing beliefs about animal welfare Laurence M and Ward MP (2022) The (responsibility to minimize unnecessary suffering) and (3) assumptions about the future. Australian 2019/2020 Black Summer Bushfires: Analysis of the Pathology, The

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y to minimize unnecessary suffering) and (3) assumptions about the future. Australian 2019/2020 Black Summer Bushfires: Analysis of the Pathology, The management of livestock was largely appropriate due to the rapid provision of Treatment Strategies and Decision veterinary expertise. However, it is likely that some injured livestock were euthanized due Making About Burnt Livestock. Front. Vet. Sci. 9:790556. to conservative veterinary advice driven by a lack of opportunity to re-assess stock, with doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.790556 impacts on farmers. In future, resourcing regular revisits of injured livestock to manage Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 1 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock risks of gradual progression of burn pathology may facilitate more accurate prognostic assessment, provided injured animals can receive appropriate pain relief. In addition, a more comprehensive burns classification system linked to prognosis that can be rapidly applied in the field may assist assessments. Keywords: Australia, bushfire, wildfire, livestock, injury, risk factors, euthanasia, decision making INTRODUCTION veterinary profession with insights into topics that are hard to reach with more widely used quantitative research methods (23), Australia had its hottest and driest year on record in 2019 such as observational epidemiological studies. and endured a series of heatwaves over much of Australia in The objectives of this study were: December 2019 (1). In the lead up to this, much of southeast Australia had suffered a protracted drought from 2017 with 1. To describe the pathology, treatment strategies, treatments rainfall values in New South Wales (NSW) and southern practically used, and risk factors for

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describe the pathology, treatment strategies, treatments rainfall values in New South Wales (NSW) and southern practically used, and risk factors for injury reported by Queensland near or below previous record low values (1). The assessing veterinarians accumulated Forest Fire Danger Index in spring 2019 was 2. To analyze the decision making by veterinarians assessing significantly higher than in any other spring on record (1). Then and advising on bushfire affected livestock, especially how in the spring and summer, Australia experienced a severe bushfire they decided whether to treat or euthanize bushfire- event. During this bushfire event more than 19 million hectares injured livestock. of land burnt, more than 3,000 homes were destroyed and 33 people died (1, 2). It was estimated that the fires and exposure MATERIALS AND METHODS to particulate matter led to several hundred excess human deaths and thousands of hospitalizations (3). A qualitative study was implemented to gather data to It was estimated in the media that more than 56,000 livestock understand the perspectives and decision-making of professional were killed by fire or euthanized in NSW, Victoria and South veterinarians when assessing and responding to bushfire-affected Australia (4). However, the true impact on livestock and livestock livestock. The methodology reported here is structured to production is unknown. Despite this, the livestock population comply with the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative at risk in these areas is relatively extensive indicating a small Research (COREQ) (24). proportion of stock was lost. For example, livestock population data (5, 6) in bushfire-affected regions of NSW and Victoria Research Team and Reflexivity indicate that there were 3.6 million cattle and

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population data (5, 6) in bushfire-affected regions of NSW and Victoria Research Team and Reflexivity indicate that there were 3.6 million cattle and 21 million sheep Three authors (BC, MW and MB-T) developed the semi- in bushfire-affected regions, although many would not have been structured interview guide independently of other authors close to fire within those regions because of the coarse scale of (see Supplementary Material). The interviews were conducted the population data (BC, unpublished data). The local impact by the lead author (BC). The analyses were first conducted on some individual farmers was very high. For example, in a by BC with subsequent assistance and commentary from all recent case control study, some farms suffered an impact of up co-authors. BC is a male veterinary epidemiologist (PhD, to $2 million (AUD) and deaths of all livestock on a farm (BC, FANZCVS) and beef producer who was from a bushfire affected unpublished data). farm. MB-T is a female medical epidemiologist (PhD) who Bushfires (wildfires) are increasing in frequency globally, has extensive experience in qualitative and mixed methods especially as a result of longer fire seasons in temperate or boreal epidemiology and strategically assisted in the project to ensure regions (7, 8). Little research has been conducted on the impacts methodologies were well-implemented. MW is a male veterinary of bushfires on livestock in any part of the world. For example, epidemiologist (Ph.D., FANZCVS) and has used qualitative a systematic literature review by co-authors (BC, AH and CP) methods in veterinary epidemiology for several years. revealed barely a dozen publications, mostly case studies in The interviewer (BC) established a new professional Australia (9–22). More specific published

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aled barely a dozen publications, mostly case studies in The interviewer (BC) established a new professional Australia (9–22). More specific published research on pathology, relationship with most of the veterinarians interviewed for the injuries and risk factors for burns due to bushfire are even more purposes of the study. However, BC had worked with three of limited. This paucity of literature limits understanding and the the veterinarians during other projects in the past. Participants ability to manage bushfire affected stock in an optimal way. were aware of the interviewer’s qualification and background This is especially concerning given the increasing frequency and through advanced notice and information about the study, severity of such events. and the interviewees were advised about BC’s credentials and It can be impossible or difficult to collect field data during experience when the interview occurred. bushfire emergencies. Under such circumstances it is difficult to collect data as veterinary and research resources are scarce or Study Design difficult to deploy. Qualitative research methods seek to uncover Informant Veterinarian Selection a diversity of views and meanings that people bring to an This research purposively selected a geographic area from which issue under investigation (23). Such approaches can provide the to sample key informants (veterinarians). This area was in the Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 2 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock southeast of NSW and in northern Victoria, and was the main team and were not returned to informant veterinarians. The bushfire-affected region in south east Australia in December 2019 manuscript was returned to three key informants

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rned to informant veterinarians. The bushfire-affected region in south east Australia in December 2019 manuscript was returned to three key informants for comments. and January 2020. This included the following districts: Bega, Bombala, Braidwood, Goulburn, Milton/Kangaroo Valley, and Descriptive and Data Analysis Riverina in the Southeast Local Land Services region of NSW, An initial descriptive analysis focused on identifying and and Upper Murray district in the Hume region of Victoria. describing the pathology, treatment strategies, treatments used These regions are shown in Figure 1 with overlying bushfire and risk factors identified by the informants. An inductive, extent. The government district veterinarian from each district semantic thematic analysis [following the approach of Braun within the regions that responded to fire in the 2019/20 bushfire and Clarke (25)] to explore the decision making processes season were included in the sampling frame for this research. In veterinarians used to decide how to respond to bushfire- addition, a privately employed veterinarian was also interviewed, injured livestock. on recommendation from a local district veterinarian due to The interview records were imported into NVIVO, release their extensive involvement during the fire response. Thus, eight 1.3 (https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data- veterinarians were contacted by email and telephone calls and all analysis-software/home). During coding, the interview material participated and were interviewed. was read and re-read, and each idea related to the research Veterinarians all had at least 3 years of rural clinical question was identified and marked or coded in NVIVO. experience and had attended at least one bushfire response. Four Themes were derived

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al clinical question was identified and marked or coded in NVIVO. experience and had attended at least one bushfire response. Four Themes were derived from the code groupings. Subthemes were veterinarians had attended fires during two or more bushfire organized within themes. Several iterations occurred before seasons, with one attending fires for 20 seasons, including as a final themes and subthemes were identified. The sub-themes professional fire fighter. Four veterinarians had only attended described exhaustively the ideas identified in the interview fires in one season, the 2019/2020 season. All veterinarians materials with the exception of farm recovery. This topic was individually visited at least 5 and up to 100 (mean 49 farms, 95% arbitrarily excluded from analysis for brevity and because the CI: 20–78) bushfire-affected farms in the 2019/2020 season. content did not align or enhance the emergent themes in the rest Veterinarians were encouraged to speak about all bushfires of the interview material. they had attended as veterinarians to assess and treat livestock, not just the 2019/2020 fires. Ethics This research was approved by The University of Melbourne’s Data Collection Human Research Ethics Committee (ethics ID 2057893.1). Key The same interview guide was used throughout all eight researchers (BC, CP) underwent trauma informed care training. interviews. Main sections of the interview were: background A plain language statement was provided to informants that information about the respondent; descriptions of pathology described the research project, approach, what the research was seen; treatment of burnt livestock; protective factors on-farm about, the informant’s role, withdrawal, and possible benefits that may have prevented injuries; and farm

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burnt livestock; protective factors on-farm about, the informant’s role, withdrawal, and possible benefits that may have prevented injuries; and farm recovery. See of the research. A verbal consent form was developed and Supplementary Material where the interview guide is detailed. administered to informants. The questions in the interview guide were asked as open- ended questions of the informant veterinarians. Each interview RESULTS lasted 30–60 min. The interviews occurred in the second half of calendar These results are divided into two parts. The first part is year 2020, ∼9–12 months after the end of the bushfires the descriptive results, namely the simple description of what in the 2019/2020 season. Three interviews occurred face veterinarians told us about the key areas of interest (e.g., observed to face. COVID-19 precautions resulted in the remaining pathology). The second part presents analytical findings about five interviews being conducted by online video-conferencing how veterinarians decided whether to euthanize or treat bushfire- (Zoom: https://zoom.us/). The face-to-face interviews occurred injured livestock. in the informant veterinarians work setting (office). Interviews were one-on-one with just the interviewer (BC) and informant Descriptive Analysis veterinarian present. The interview material provided several topic areas when Four of the informant veterinarians were men and four were conducting descriptive analyses. This included: women. Their median age was 41 years (range: 28–55). Where clarifications were required after interviews, • External gross pathology and clinical signs veterinarians were contacted via email or phone calls. This • Possible treatment outcomes occurred on three occasions. • Risk and protective factors for

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terinarians were contacted via email or phone calls. This • Possible treatment outcomes occurred on three occasions. • Risk and protective factors for bushfire exposed Interview audio recordings were transcribed initially livestock injury. using Amazon Web Services (https://aws.amazon.com/) and These topics are described in the following sections. the Amazon Transcribe tool, which uses machine learning. Automatically transcribed word documents were manually External Gross Pathology and Clinical Signs checked and corrected by iteratively listening to and correcting This includes information that describes the wide spectrum of transcripts. These transcripts were viewed only by the research gross pathology in bushfire affected sheep and cattle observed Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 3 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock FIGURE 1 | A map displaying the two regions of Australia where the study occurred with bushfire extent overlaid. The location of the study site within the Australian continent is inlaid. by attending veterinarians. A key finding was the limited ability Veterinarians Can Only Report on External Pathology for informant veterinarians to examine anything other than Attending veterinarians were operating in a disaster area and gross external pathology, as post mortem examinations and noted they were working with various practical and legal other investigations were not conducted due to the nature impediments including: of the emergency. There was a wide spectrum of severity of • Bushfires were still active leading to dangerous conditions that injury reported. limited farm access • Navigation was difficult as often veterinarians were operating Context in Terms of Prevalence of Dead

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ions that injury reported. limited farm access • Navigation was difficult as often veterinarians were operating Context in Terms of Prevalence of Dead and in unfamiliar areas, road signs and recognisable features had Euthanized Livestock burnt, or databases of farm locations were not available due to Data describing the number of cattle that either died due to burns telecommunications failures. or were euthanized in the fires in 2019/2020 in their district • States of emergency and other legal controls were declared and were provided by one veterinarian only and are reported here. veterinarians could not always access farms without escorts or Similar data were not accessed from other districts. In the upper permission, and veterinary access was not always treated as Murray district there are approximately 55 000 cattle. 3 580 cattle high priority. One veterinarian was appreciative of being kept (7%) were euthanized or died due to bushfire burns. Nearly all safe, but explained that it delayed their response: the district farming land burned during the fire, and there were extensive areas of bush. This means that most cattle had relatively “So there was an incident response at the council, and the incident close contact with fire, sometimes very severe fire. There were 2 controller was police. 053 sheep killed in the upper Murray district, but the underlying Yeah he came out here and said you can’t go out. Then they had sheep population was not able to be accurately estimated. a couple of priority calls and we were escorted out. But it just took Of the 3,580 cattle killed during bushfires, only 373 (12%) a while for the wheels to start turning. And then it was only at the were euthanized by Agriculture Victoria (the state agricultural point where things were

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e for the wheels to start turning. And then it was only at the were euthanized by Agriculture Victoria (the state agricultural point where things were really safe. You don’t mind them trying to department) after veterinary assessment and 88% died due to keep me safe, but a lot of decisions had already been made in that in burns or were euthanized by farmers. Of 2 052 sheep killed during that time frame, without advice.” [Interviewed Veterinarian (IV1)] the bushfires, 473 (23%) were euthanized by Agriculture Victoria after veterinary assessment and 77% died due to burns with no • There was a high workload with hundreds of farms to visit in intervention or were euthanized by farmers. a district and only a limited animal health workforce. Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 4 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock Together, these factors resulted in veterinarians having a limited was blinded with scar tissue, evident in surviving cattle sometime time available to attend a bushfire affected farm, although the after the burns occurred. veterinarians visited up to dozens or hundreds of farms each. Thus, veterinarians were only able to perform an external Severity of Gross Pathology and Clinical Signs examination of bushfire affected livestock and no information There was a very wide spectrum of external gross pathology is available from veterinarians on the possible internal gross observed by veterinarians. This has been categorized into mild, pathology associated with bushfire affected stock (e.g., pathology moderate and severe pathology in this study based on their affecting the lungs and pleura). In addition, several informant likely prognosis, although there is a continuous spectrum. Others

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study based on their affecting the lungs and pleura). In addition, several informant likely prognosis, although there is a continuous spectrum. Others veterinarians reported that a small proportion of stock on farms have classified similarly (18). A mild classification indicated were examined from a distance as stock handling facilities were that livestock were injured in a minor way and could be burnt. Thus, there is only a detailed understanding of the external retained on the farm for later breeding or managed culling when gross pathology associated with bushfires from this study. suitable. A moderate classification indicated that livestock were For example, one veterinarian stated “there are always a more severely injured, with cattle requiring salvage slaughter number of animals to assess and you are always under that bit or adequate treatment and nursing on the farm. A severe of time pressure, whether it’s on the property that you’re on, that classification indicated that if livestock were not already dead you’re having to get through the animals that are damaged or they would require immediate euthanasia. whether it’s because you’ve got to get onto another property. So, These definitions do not include categorization based on no, I’ve never sort of stopped to see things further.” [IV2] the severity of animal welfare impacts. It is plausible and accepted that bushfire injuries in livestock affect animal welfare, sometimes very severely (11, 17, 18). However, there is Anatomical Area Affected by Fire insufficient previous research to understand the relative degree Areas observed with signs of pathology included the common of suffering associated with different bushfire injuries. Injuries integument such as hooves and skin and associated structures

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gy included the common of suffering associated with different bushfire injuries. Injuries integument such as hooves and skin and associated structures classified as moderate or severe clearly have substantive welfare (such as udder and teats), eyes and the respiratory system. impacts, and some negative welfare effect is likely also present for The most common areas affected by fire were the hooves, mild injuries. from mild burns of the coronary band (periople) or heel bulb • Mild to complete sloughing of the hoof. The periople is the narrow strip along the coronary dermis border that is at the junction Gross pathology in mild cases included singeing of hair (cattle) between skin and wall of hoof above the hoof (26). However, all and wool (sheep) or small superficial burns to exposed skin veterinarians interviewed that spoke of this area referred to it as (e.g., vulva, inguinal and axillary areas and udders). In addition, the coronary band, similarly to horses. The authors thus generally some foot burns were evident that led to mild laminitis and refer to this area as the coronary band within this study. lifting of the heel bulb, and clinical signs associated with Skin burns were also relatively common, especially burnt weightbearing lameness. teats. Teats were reported to easily injured structures with good Some subtle respiratory signs could be evident (e.g., serous or likelihood of healing, but with occlusions to milk flow frequently mucous nasal discharge) indicative of respiratory pathology. limiting the affected cow or ewe’s later productive value (i.e., Another clinical sign observed in mild cases was that some offspring will later starve when born as milk flow occluded). livestock were quiet and depressed and not as active as usual, Large sections of burnt

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e offspring will later starve when born as milk flow occluded). livestock were quiet and depressed and not as active as usual, Large sections of burnt skin were rarer. Cases with large areas of or were generally stiff when moving. When examined, there was burnt skin were associated with stock grazing in heavily vegetated no obvious gross pathology (e.g., burnt feet). One veterinarian areas, which was uncommon. However, skin burns varied from a ascribed these signs to a possible generalized myopathy due to small proportion of the body to 100% of the skin burnt and from running from fire. superficial to full thickness burns. • Moderate Areas of skin that were close to the ground or not protected by wool or hair were more susceptible to burns. This included Moderate gross pathology included burns to various parts of the the axillary and inguinal areas, scrotum, prepuce, udders, vulva common integument (i.e., skin, hooves etc.) and damage to the and around the legs and feet. respiratory system. Clinical signs of respiratory injury were reported to be Feet with their sensitive tissues are particularly susceptible relatively frequent and were generally acute in nature. It is to fire, in both sheep and cattle. Veterinarians spoke frequently uncertain what gross respiratory pathology was occurring as no about the importance of assessing damage to the coronary band, livestock were examined post-mortem. However, clinical signs of the connection between the proximal hoof and skin of the leg. dyspnoea, exercise intolerance, increased respiratory rates, open In cases of moderate pathology the coronary band may be mildly mouthed breathing, frothy nasal discharge and death indicates burned, but not severely enough to lead to separation of the skin that the pathology was sometimes

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eathing, frothy nasal discharge and death indicates burned, but not severely enough to lead to separation of the skin that the pathology was sometimes likely very severe. In addition, of the leg and the hoof. there were many cases of nasal discharge and dyspnoea without Skin burns were considered moderate when a small severe signs or death. proportion of the body was burnt (e.g., <5–10%), and this was Eye injuries were rarer and included subsequent pink eye or not generally full thickness. This frequently included damage to corneal burns. Some corneal burns were so severe that the animal teats [also see (16)] and other exposed areas (e.g., vulva, inguinal Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 5 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock and axillary areas). It is interesting to note damage to prepuce with just an inflamed coronary band. However, over 3–4 days, or scrotums was only rarely discussed, and this may reflect the if the burn is severe enough, the periople (coronary band) can relatively small proportion of entire male animals in Australian split, the coronary dermis can release and the hoof can slough livestock populations in bushfire affected areas. off. Likewise, skin burns on the body or extremities can appear relatively normal on the first day (for example a subtle leathering • Severe of the skin where skin loses its elasticity). However, after several Flocks of sheep could be found dead and packed together. Here days it can become an eschar (a necrotic slough of skin) and after sheep had presumably flocked together as the fire approached several weeks be a large granuloma with skin migration from the with sheep on the inside for the flock often suffocated and edges (if the animal survives).

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al weeks be a large granuloma with skin migration from the with sheep on the inside for the flock often suffocated and edges (if the animal survives). For example: sheep on the outside dead from burns. In cattle this behavior was not reported, instead dead and burnt cattle were generally Veterinarian: And, actually, I saw a few cattle that I shot that would a smaller proportion of the herd and were dispersed across have been burnt three weeks before I got to them, by the time that I wider areas. saw them. And so probably three weeks before they would not have Severely affected stock included stock that were found dead looked that badly burnt. But when I got to them, they had sheets of with 100% skin burn coverage. However, some stock were still skin hanging off them. alive but comatose and recumbent even with extensive burns Interviewer: Muscles exposed, subcutaneous tissue? (e.g., 100%) to their bodies when visited one or more days after Veterinarian: Yeah, Yeah, it was. It would have been the full the fire had occurred. amount of skin was hanging off them. So I would think that day one if I’d seen them, I probably would have thought that they were Skin burns could be full thickness and across much of the a mildly burnt animal, three weeks later there were sheets of skin body, so that the animal appeared charred. For example: hanging off them. [IV2] Veterinarian: “There was one farm that we went to, that the biosecurity officer who was with me didn’t realise that they Other studies have also found that pathology develops over were Herefords.” time, including over a period of days and weeks (12). It Interviewer: “Oh he thought they were Angus, because they is noted that the prolonged time to development of visual were black?” gross pathology does not

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erviewer: “Oh he thought they were Angus, because they is noted that the prolonged time to development of visual were black?” gross pathology does not reflect the time for pain to be Veterinarian: “Yes, it wasn’t till we came across one that had perceived by a burnt animal. For example, immediate pain calved post fire. may be associated with nociceptors being stimulated; animal Yes, it had calved and we could see it was a dead Hereford burn models demonstrate that inflammation begins immediately calf.” [IV3] as cells are injured as they release pro-inflammatory factors Other skin burns may be less than the whole body, but still with inflammation also associated with pain (27). Bushfire extensive enough to lead to severe pain and suffering or later injured livestock have demonstrated clinical signs consistent death as time passes. with pain after bushfire injury, for example inappetence, sternal Other stock that were severely affected included those with recumbency and reluctance to move (12). Appropriate pain severe respiratory disease, such as with increased respiratory management should therefore be considered, even if early rates, exercise intolerance (hypoxia), open mouthed breathing examination does not suggest severe injury. and frothy nasal discharge. This indicates severe and acute respiratory pathology, presumably associated with burns to the Possible Treatment Outcomes respiratory system. Strategic Options Available Hoof pathology was a particularly important area. A common Severely bushfire affected livestock often died on the farm before pathological finding was that the coronary band had burned. This veterinary assessment. However, for livestock that are burned could present initially as a cracked or blistered coronary band with less severity, or

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s veterinary assessment. However, for livestock that are burned could present initially as a cracked or blistered coronary band with less severity, or for well-resourced livestock owners who before complete separation between the hoof and the skin of may be able to treat stock, management options are available. the leg as the coronary band split and lost integrity. This would This section explores the several options informant veterinarians often result in the hoof falling off the foot as it would lead to considered for burnt livestock, each with relative advantages and the coronary dermis separating from the overlying hoof. The disadvantages. These include: sloughed hoof would appear normal and would leave exposed • Immediate euthanasia the underlying tissues of the hoof (e.g., underlying dermis, digital cushion and phalanx bones). These stock were extremely lame A bushfire affected livestock animal is euthanized on the farm of and were usually recumbent, or sometimes found in water bodies origin, usually with a rifle shot to the brain. (dams) which the veterinarians interpreted as an attempt to This option is indicated for stock that are severely fire affected, relieve pain. where welfare is severely compromised and that cannot be successfully treated. In general, euthanasia was reported to be Time to Develop Pathology indicated when hooves had already sloughed (or were considered Most informant veterinarians discussed that it takes several days likely to slough in the near future) or where full thickness skin for the full extent of burns to become evident. For example, burns were evident across ∼5–20% of the body or more and those on the day after a fire, burnt feet can appear relatively normal, stock were not fit to transport to an abattoir. Frontiers in

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body or more and those on the day after a fire, burnt feet can appear relatively normal, stock were not fit to transport to an abattoir. Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 6 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock This was a common strategic option employed by them getting onto a truck. So they were given the option to treat or veterinarians assessing moderately or severely fire affected euthanise.” [IV4] livestock and is in-line with published government guidelines (28). Cooperation with livestock selling agents assisted the process, • Salvage slaughter as they had contact with local abattoirs and could arrange a guaranteed processing slot. Livestock agents reportedly worked A bushfire-affected animal is immediately transported to very hard for the clients, exhibiting bravery and altruism during an abattoir and slaughtered promptly on arrival under a the process of facilitating rapid salvage slaughter and minimize commercial arrangement. welfare impacts. As one veterinarian stated: If an animal was bushfire-affected and required euthanasia (as above) but was fit for the intended journey (fit to load) under “The agents were on the ground before we were. . . . . . .. He did a the Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for the phenomenal job, he is a hero.” [IV3] Land Transport of Livestock (29, 30), it could be slaughtered at an abattoir as an alternative to on-farm euthanasia. Briefly, • Retain and cull later a fit to load animal is one that can walk independently, is free from severe injury or distress and is strong enough to make the Some stock had minor damage that could be treated on farm, journey. An animal that is not fit to load would include where with recovery expected

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e the Some stock had minor damage that could be treated on farm, journey. An animal that is not fit to load would include where with recovery expected without ongoing substantial animal its condition is “likely to further compromise its welfare during welfare impacts. This may include those stock with burnt teat transport” (29). tips. These stock would likely have a poor productive future, and This was reported to have the advantage of being logistically were often in sub-optimal body condition due to the drought that more feasible (e.g., on-farm disposal of bodies is not required was concurrent with the fire season. However, keeping them on and response resources not allocated to destruction of livestock) farm to recover for several months allowed these animals to put and more acceptable for the producer as it returns some financial on condition, enabling improved carcass quality for commercial value from the slaughtered cattle to the producer. slaughter at a later date. However, salvage slaughter was used cautiously. Veterinarians • No intervention considered it an ethical obligation to avoid undue suffering in injured livestock, and transporting an animal that is not Whilst retaining burnt stock on farm with no treatment fit to load is also legislated as an act of cruelty and liable to was not advocated by veterinarians, this sometimes occurred. prosecution. Therefore, a conservative assessment of fitness to This may have been because cattle disappeared into bushland load was common in borderline cases. In addition, if there are (unrestrained by fences) or were not noticed or not considered obvious visible signs of burns on the animal, it is likely that by their traumatized owners. Some livestock did recover these parts of the animal would be condemned, for

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ns of burns on the animal, it is likely that by their traumatized owners. Some livestock did recover these parts of the animal would be condemned, for example without intervention in cases reported by veterinarians although due to oedema in burnt areas (or the entire animal if the likely experienced a negative animal welfare state during burns were extensive). This could make processing the animal their recovery. financially unviable. A typical example of an animal that may • Treat on farm and normal productive capacity in the future qualify for salvage slaughter would be a cow with a burnt teats that would not have a productive future and that could be Some injured livestock could be retained on farm with slaughtered promptly in a nearby abattoir with minimal carcass appropriate veterinary and nursing care. They could then be condemnations. Whilst a modestly injured animal like this expected to recover and have a normal productive life in the may experience some welfare compromise on the journey (e.g., future. As an example, one producer opted to euthanize many painful teats), decision making appeared to be a compromise of the ewes on her farm after a fire but retained most of the between practicalities (ability to euthanize and dispose of rams to conserve the genetic line of sheep. These rams had their bodies), animal welfare and financial compensation for the burns bandaged and dressed and received appropriate food and farmer (farmer welfare). medication (systemic antibiotics and pain relief) over a long Particular care was taken by veterinarians to assess the hoof period of time until their hooves grew back. Sperm motility was structure (to ensure that the hoof would remain intact during assessed post recovery to confirm that their long-term fertility transport

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motility was structure (to ensure that the hoof would remain intact during assessed post recovery to confirm that their long-term fertility transport to the abattoir), that slaughter would be immediate (i.e., was adequate. that the abattoir had availability to slaughter stock immediately) • Hospitalization and intensive treatment and that the journey length was suitable given the state of the animal, based on the veterinarian’s assessment. An alternative management pathway is to refer stock to a veterinary hospital for intensive treatment. However, in the bushfire affected regions there were very few large animal “[Salvage Slaughter] would be OK if the animals could still walk onto a truck. And if udders were burnt to a point where they hospitals suitable for hospitalization of large animals and capacity wouldn’t be usable for breeding stock. I recommended straight to was limited. In addition, transport was difficult and treatment an abattoir. would have been too expensive given the value of most of the There were a few where when I was looking at their feet, I felt animals that had been burnt. No sheep or cattle were reported like they were still lame, and I couldn’t ethically feel comfortable hospitalized by informant veterinarians. Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 7 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock Some government veterinarians reported that a minority of infrastructure such as saleyards for smaller hobby farmers. As one local private veterinarians were occasionally treating stock in veterinarian reported: the field (in situ on a farm) that they deemed should have been euthanized for welfare reasons. The treatment provided She kept moving around it [the fire]. She had moved the

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farm) that they deemed should have been euthanized for welfare reasons. The treatment provided She kept moving around it [the fire]. She had moved the animals was reportedly guided by treatment recommendations for other multiple times and not one of her animals was affected, and she burnt livestock species (horses) in intensive care or hospital had quite a few stock. [IV3] settings (31). However, the field treatment that occurred was not equivalent with the treatment reported in the publication. It is A suitable location included: unclear if similar treatment was widespread, but if so, species- • a dairy yard or cattle yard where cattle could be tightly held specific education about prognosis and treatment of badly burnt and where sprinklers could be activated. livestock and the need for immediate euthanasia may be required • bare containment paddocks with very short grass that were for some parts of the rural veterinary profession. away from woody vegetation. • lush, irrigated paddocks with green grass. Medications and Treatments Used • paddocks that were ploughed to remove grass in preparation Under the circumstances of limited access, emergency of the fire. conditions and lack of access to veterinary hospitals, treatments used on livestock in the field were relatively rudimentary. In these locations, fire could not progress due to lack of fuel and Treatments that were practical and used or recommended by hence stock were protected from burns. veterinarians included: A practical impediment to implementing this approach was having adequate notice of when a fire would arrive. As an • Bandaging and dressing example, one veterinarian noted what happened in a valley • Systemic antibiotic use (especially with long-acting antibiotics during a previous fire. such

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mple, one veterinarian noted what happened in a valley • Systemic antibiotic use (especially with long-acting antibiotics during a previous fire. such as oxytetracycline or penicillins) • Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) such “Actually, the Indigo Valley Fire that was a hot windy day, and as meloxicam fast-moving grass fire that started without any warning or anything • Topical treatments containing local anaesthetic, antiseptics like that. And the upper part of the fire, which is probably the area and adrenaline such as off label use of Tri-Solfen R (https:// I spent most of my time in, there were quite a large number of apvma.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication/14121-prs-tri- properties with burnt stock up the valley because that’s the way that solfen.pdf) the fire went. But as you moved up the valley, there were very few • Appropriate feed and water and general nursing care. properties with burnt stock. And I think that the fire activity all the way through the valley probably would have been the same because There was no widespread use of more complex and resource the only thing that stopped the fire was it got to the end of the valley intensive burn treatments such as hospitalization with at the end of the day. And then there was a sort of a change in wind skin grafting or skin culture, fluid treatments or surgery and a little bit of rain, and that kind of pulled it up. (e.g., debridement). But all that afternoon, the fire basically travelled up the valley at a similar sort of intensity. And so the only difference could be that the people that live near the start of the fire had less time to do Risk and Protective Factors for Bushfire Exposed something about preparing their stock from the ones further up the Livestock Injury valley.”

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me to do Risk and Protective Factors for Bushfire Exposed something about preparing their stock from the ones further up the Livestock Injury valley.” [IV2] Veterinarians provided opinions on what they thought were protective factors for bushfire-associated burns on livestock. This lack of warning was a particular concern in cross border These opinions allowed hypotheses to be developed about risk areas where separate jurisdictional fire authorities were managing factors for burns. fire either side of the border. In Victoria in the upper Murray, It is important to note that these are anecdotal observations farmers close to the NSW border did not receive warning of the by veterinarians and could not be tested as formal risk factors fires approach and hence had less time to prepare for the fire. in this qualitative study. However, a separate quantitative Other protective management actions discussed included epidemiological study (a case-control study) where risk factors traditional fire management activities such as fire breaks, back are formally tested against bushfire injury has been conducted burning, actively fighting fire with water and much earlier concurrently as part of a broader research project (BC, preparation with prescribed burning (e.g., previous year). Unpublished data). Providing stock access to paddocks without woody vegetation and with drainage lines and broad gullies (moist areas) where fire Proactive Management Steps to Protect Stock could pass over them were also reported to be protective. A key step taken that protected stock when fire arrived on farm was moving stock to a suitable location where bushfire Risk Factors for Livestock Burning was less likely to impact them. This may include regularly Unsurprisingly, the type, amount and proximity of

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shfire Risk Factors for Livestock Burning was less likely to impact them. This may include regularly Unsurprisingly, the type, amount and proximity of vegetation moving stock on a farm as fire fronts come from different around livestock were reported to be strongly influential risk directions. Suitable locations were generally on the same farm for factors to livestock being burnt. The proximity of woody larger producers but could be off-farm to nearby cattle holding vegetation, especially forested area was a strong indicator that Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 8 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock the fire would be more intense, faster moving and riskier for is thus important to understand the decision-making process of livestock. A veterinarian reported that: attending veterinarians. Theoretically there are several strategies that can be Yeah. I mean, the properties where we euthanised everything were implemented to manage bushfire injured livestock. See section those bush blocks or where everything decided to run into the above—Strategic options available. However, in practice, two bush. [IV2] pathways were generally pursued, immediate euthanasia or retention and treatment on the farm, with salvage slaughter rarely Landscapes with hills and uneven topography where fire could deemed appropriate. Therefore, this section focuses on these two advance quickly uphill were risky. In addition these sort of most common strategies. areas, are harder to manage for fire risk (such as harder to Three themes were identified by most veterinarians that control woody weed growth) and harder to muster stock from appear to explain how assessing veterinarians decided on a at short notice. treatment strategy.

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rol woody weed growth) and harder to muster stock from appear to explain how assessing veterinarians decided on a at short notice. treatment strategy. These are: Another risk factor was where stock were trapped and • Pre-existing beliefs. could not maneuver around a fire. For example, gullies with • Observations of pathology and clinical signs and level of thick blackberry infestations impeded escape, as did fences, and prognostic doubt. small paddocks. • Assumptions about the future. Chance They are described along with sub-themes in following sections. Weather conditions were reported to be very influential on the fire intensity, and hence the risk to stock. A very hot, dry and Pre-existing Beliefs windy day lead to more intense fires. Therefore, the weather This theme considers some beliefs and duties of attending conditions that coincided with a fire reaching a farm impacted veterinarians that may affect application of treatment strategies the severity of stock damage, largely due to a complex interaction and that are independent of pathology. That is, it is not a simple of proximity to fire, speed of fire, random events (e.g., spotting) matter of assessing the ability of a burnt animal to recover, rather and weather conditions. There is often no apparent predictable it is also a complex decision based on non-biological factors pattern to this interaction, so to some extent chance played a part associated with clinical training, societal and ethical beliefs, in whether or not stock were injured. As one veterinarian noted and experience. about a farming area being threatened by fire: Welfare “They’ve got a range and the range kind of runs at the back of them Veterinarians felt ethically that euthanasia was the best course and they would have been faced

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a range and the range kind of runs at the back of them Veterinarians felt ethically that euthanasia was the best course and they would have been faced with fire. They must have had two to pursue for severely bushfire-injured affected livestock, even if or three weeks of fire. But I do think they were they were lucky. I they could survive. As one veterinarian stated: think the whole time they had to be very alert. They were doing a lot of containment activity, and I think you (and not to say it wasn’t stressful because it was constant for weeks on end) but it always “If there was anything, if I thought something was unlikely to just seem to be that as it kind of was getting closer, the wind would survive, I really encourage people to use euthanasia. I think that change, and then sort of push it away. Fire come down and then greatest gift to give. We couldn’t have something standing there push away. And, you know, a lot of them were expecting at some suffering.” [IV6] point they’re going to have a really bad day. So constantly alert to that very bad day, but they just didn’t happen to get one of those No definition of suffering was provided by interviewed days.” [IV1] veterinarians. However, many veterinarians reported that livestock owners felt the same way. This indicates that the Analysis of the Decision-Making welfare of animals is a broader societal consideration. Framework Veterinarians Used to Decide For example: What to Do With Bushfire-Injured Livestock While there was little data provided by the veterinarians on A lot of the euthanasia happened before we could get out there, by the proportion of burnt stock that were treated and recovered, local people. [IV2] data on the proportion of dead stock that died of bushfire injuries was available from

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urnt stock that were treated and recovered, local people. [IV2] data on the proportion of dead stock that died of bushfire injuries was available from one district. Of these stock dead However, a key issue was that non-veterinarians involved with due to bushfires, it appeared that 12% of cattle and 23% assessing stock (for example a farmer assessing their own of sheep were euthanized by government staff rather than livestock) were perceived to tend toward under-estimating the dying from just fire injuries. This indicates that the decision severity of the injuries in the early stages. These individuals to euthanize stock is an important decision for producers, would not realize the severity of injuries that would likely and one largely made on recommendations of the attending develop over time as injuries became more apparent (e.g., as skin government veterinarians. It is important because euthanizing sloughed etc.). livestock has financial and welfare impacts on farmers, but not In summary, despite many stock possibly being able to survive euthanizing livestock can have welfare impacts for livestock. It fires, veterinarians often recommended euthanasia: Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 9 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock “There were plenty I think that got burnt and significantly badly guidelines of proportion of body burnt based on their clinical burned that would have survived, but it just would have been judgement of the animal’s welfare compromise and capacity to awful.” [IV6] recover, especially if there was no insurance coverage in place for bushfire affected livestock. This presented veterinarians with an ethical dilemma, to find the right balance between their Observations of

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n place for bushfire affected livestock. This presented veterinarians with an ethical dilemma, to find the right balance between their Observations of Pathology and Clinical Signs and professional obligation to prevent pain and suffering in animals, Level of Prognostic Doubt yet to also protect the financial viability and welfare of the farmers Decision Points (Criteria for Euthanasia Verse Treatment) which they assist. Veterinarians discussed what they thought were some clinical The thickness of the skin burn was also important. Superficial criteria that could be used to decide whether to treat or euthanize burns were viewed more favourably, but if the burns were full bushfire affected livestock. These include: thickness then it was considered more conservatively (i.e., were more likely to be culled). • Hooves: Although the interaction between size of burn and depth of Where the examination occurred quickly after a fire (e.g., 1 burn was important, there was no simple criteria for culling day after the fire) and before full progression of pathology, the reported that combined both depth and area of burn. key criterion was damage to the coronary band. Euthanasia was recommended if the damage was significant enough that Biological Ability to Recover From Burns Can Be High it could or would lead to separation of the hoof and skin of Very severely burnt animals often died at the time of the fires or leg and later sloughing of the hoof. Significant damage included shortly after. However, there were a proportion of substantially cracking and severe burns or inflammation of the coronary burnt animals that were not assessed and euthanized at the time band. As most examinations occurred quickly after fires (e.g., of the fires. Instead they survived bushfire burns as

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sessed and euthanized at the time band. As most examinations occurred quickly after fires (e.g., of the fires. Instead they survived bushfire burns as evidenced by within 1–2 days of injury) before full development of pathology, being presented for examination for the first time many weeks to some this assessment relied on experience and what may after the fires. This indicates that many stock could potentially happen to the hoof in the future. Experience often included recover from bushfire burns, even if they were severe. a veterinarian’s previous experience treating bushfire affected livestock or advice from more senior veterinarians. That is, “I saw one cow that I saw three weeks after the fire. She had been prognostic or predictive thinking was employed to determine trucked elsewhere, shouldn’t have but she was, three weeks after the how the pathology (especially separation of the hoof) may fire and she had scarring that it was quite obvious that she’d had develop and guide advice for euthanasia. deep burns to one side of her body. Probably 50%. Was healing amazingly. I think it would have been full thickness. It had started If pathology had time to progress before examination (i.e., granulating and was starting to contract already and come in from examined after 3–4 days) then the hoofs attachment to the foot the sides. . . . . . . was the key criteria. In general, movement of the hoof relative And I think that animal, if I’d seen her on the day of impact, I to the foot was an indication that it was likely the hoof would probably would have euthansed. It was an interesting moment to slough off. me to go, well, actually, they can heal. And I suppose that’s true of In more severe cases where hooves had sloughed off, this was burns, but maybe not so

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o go, well, actually, they can heal. And I suppose that’s true of In more severe cases where hooves had sloughed off, this was burns, but maybe not so much on feet, but on skin, so long as they an indication for immediate euthanasia. don’t get infected, they will heal.” [IV1] In summary, all veterinarians were aware that there would be a progression of clinical signs over time. However, there was doubt Similar observations were reported by several of the in some circumstances as to how bad the pathology may be once veterinarians interviewed. time had passed (i.e., how the hoof burns would progress). In Thus, it is apparent that many badly burnt animals do have a general, it appeared a precautionary principle was applied and biological ability to recover, especially from extensive skin burns. it was assumed that severe burns to the coronary band would However, in most cases where these cattle were observed shortly lead to hoof sloughing and thus livestock should be euthanized. after being burnt, assessing veterinarians would elect to euthanize It appeared that this assumption about future pathology was a stock, rather than treat stock. critical decision point, but these decisions had to be made without a clear prognostic indicator or without certainty by the assessing Experience and Information Sources for Attending veterinarians in some instances. Veterinarians Whilst veterinarians were experienced in rural practice, • Skin burns (depth and thickness) competent and capable, several reported they had little Several veterinarians reported they used existing departmental experience with bushfire affected livestock and in recognizing guides for euthanasia based on skin burns. For example if 5– the pathology of bushfire burns. That is, several veterinarians 10% or

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and in recognizing guides for euthanasia based on skin burns. For example if 5– the pathology of bushfire burns. That is, several veterinarians 10% or more of an animal was burnt to full skin thickness then were attending their first fires. Their sources of information on they would recommend euthanasia. However, the reported range prognosis were limited to Government Departmental guides that lead to euthanasia in the 2019/2020 bushfires varied from on treatment of bushfire affected livestock and discussions 5 to 20%. And it was clear that many veterinarians saw animals with more experienced veterinarians. Whilst Departmental that survived with significantly greater proportions of the body guides are useful documents, they are based on a small number burnt (e.g., 50%). Several veterinarians exceeded the available of contributing individuals and anecdotal experience with Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 10 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock little research base behind them. Similarly the same sort of avoid incurring future human and financial costs on behalf information was provided by experienced colleagues who of producers. also could not generally attend fires with veterinarians due to Successful treatment of burnt stock is often time-consuming resource constraints. and requires great effort, and most livestock owners had many Thus, some veterinarians were making decisions with only responsibilities and difficulties after the fires. That is, they a theoretical understanding of bushfire affected stock, and may have had deceased family members, their house burnt no practical experience of prognosis. This tended to lead down, extensive infrastructure damage on their farm, access to veterinarians

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eir house burnt no practical experience of prognosis. This tended to lead down, extensive infrastructure damage on their farm, access to veterinarians to euthanize livestock as a precautionary measure to services impeded (e.g., veterinary services) and financial losses. avoid possible adverse welfare outcomes. With greater experience This practically limited the time that livestock owners could in future, several veterinarians may not have recommended as spend on intensive nursing of bushfire affected stock. Without high a proportion of livestock be euthanized. For example, one time, money and the mental resources available to conduct the veterinarian spoke about relying on Departmental guides until required treatments, then the probability of appropriate nursing they were experienced and then using their own experience in and treatment of stock was reduced, and the alternative was part to guide prognosis and decision making by more refined euthanasia of livestock. For example as one veterinarian stated: categorization of affected livestock: Absolutely, some were keen as mustard to treat, whatever needed to I looked at a DPI document. You know, maybe DPI was suggesting, be done. So we threw the book at it. A couple of the cattle people if you’ve got more than 5 to 10% of the cow burnt, then you had well, they were not interested, like they had lost half the sheds, the to cull it for a full thickness burn. Particularly if it’s a full thickness house, they were, you know, more concerned with the fact they were burn. Yes, the full thickness burns were covering one side of the cow, alive. And, you know maybe getting some hay to the ones that were so I deem that 50% of full thickness. So you’re a goner no matter alive. [IV5] whether or not you’re a human in

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getting some hay to the ones that were so I deem that 50% of full thickness. So you’re a goner no matter alive. [IV5] whether or not you’re a human in intensive care, hospital bed or you’re a cow. The successful treatment of bushfire-affected livestock is complex And then I suppose the further into it I got, maybe the more lenient and highly skilled but little researched with most information I became. But you think you know, yet the more you see, the more available for the treatment of general burns in other species such you start to try and sort of get your category and then you start as companion animals and horses (31–35). Most veterinarians to unconsciously put animals on the scale within that category. I assessing livestock were government veterinarians and had always end up doing the same with welfare cases as well. You know, the skills. However, the general policy for the organizations you’ve got a high risk one animal, and then you’ve got is not quite as bad or worse, but it’s not a high risk two, so yeah, scale around employing these veterinarians was that they do not offer that whether they are going to get culled or not. [IV5] medicines and treatments to livestock, instead they simply assess, advise on treatment and assist in euthanasia of stock. Medicines and treatments are instead offered by private veterinarians, which Summary of theme Defined pathological indicators of when are typically an expense to a livestock owner and are not always burnt livestock should be euthanized were useful, although the accessible after a fire. Thus, lack of access or ability to pay for application of prognostic indicators was complicated by the veterinary services tended to be an impediment to treatment of gradual progression of signs over several days. That

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indicators was complicated by the veterinary services tended to be an impediment to treatment of gradual progression of signs over several days. That is, pathology livestock, if not to assessment and euthanasia. may be very subtle in the first days after fire exposure and Notwithstanding this, there were rare reports of successful livestock may not be clearly identified as being in a severe treatment of livestock. For example, in one instance a veterinary category initially. In addition, some attending veterinarians were nurse was able to stay at a bushfire affected farm for weeks and unavoidably inexperienced at assessing burnt livestock (as fires nurse genetically important rams who eventually recovered and are rare), although their experience increased rapidly over time. were subsequently fertile. This was summarized by a veterinarian These factors led to some uncertainty on the prognosis for some who observed the treatment: burnt livestock. Where uncertainty occurred, in some instances veterinarians culled some livestock on a precautionary basis. And I mean, the thing that helped with that was that she had a Clearly, as many livestock can survive with severe burns, some vet nurse friend who stayed with her, who did all the treatments. culling that occurred was for reasons other than a biological Managed to get free antibiotics or donated and got some pain relief ability to recover (see next themes below). and was able to change bandages and things. And we saw sheep in that that you know, they did slough their hooves, but they were Assumptions About the Future managed with bandaging. And they actually regrew those hooves. In deciding on a treatment pathway various practical So you know it is possible to do it. But its very time consuming and considerations were

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hooves. In deciding on a treatment pathway various practical So you know it is possible to do it. But its very time consuming and considerations were relevant to veterinarians. Mostly these were very expensive. [IV7] inferences about the future, made by attending veterinarians. Veterinary Access to Farms Costs and Resources (Including Human) to Treat During the fires, access to fire affected farms was relatively limited In general veterinarians believed intensive treatment of animals due to safety restrictions, and veterinary resources were stretched was impractical for many bushfire-affected livestock and instead due to the number of affected farms in each fire-affected region. chose euthanasia for stock that may otherwise have recovered This meant that veterinarians tried to limit visits to a single visit with intensive treatment. That is, they were seeking to per farm for pragmatic reasons, as future access and resources to Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 11 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock attend the farm on multiple occasions may be limited. Sometimes Summary of Thematic Analysis: Conservative this was not the case, with some farms receiving multiple visits Decision Making when possible and required. In addition, veterinarians tried to There were complex factors impacting decision making about reach farms within the first day after a fire to optimize welfare how to manage burnt livestock. outcomes (reducing the possibility of negative welfare states While welfare was one of the primary considerations, it while awaiting veterinary assessment) for fire affected livestock. appeared that there was at times conservative decision making That is, if there were livestock requiring euthanasia, it

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) for fire affected livestock. appeared that there was at times conservative decision making That is, if there were livestock requiring euthanasia, it was better when deciding how to treat moderately or severely affected to do this as soon as possible to reduce any possible livestock livestock. Treatment tended to euthanasia as veterinarians were suffering. For example, an interviewed veterinarian stated: risk averse (e.g., welfare) and had various practical considerations to take into account. Many stock may have survived To me that was drawing out a very long, painful process. I guess my their bushfire injuries but for complex reasons (especially theory was go hard, go early and then have that job done to, like, welfare) they were instead euthanized without treatment don’t have to keep going back for return visits. [IV2] being attempted. In particular, complex interconnected issues of gradual However, due to the time taken for the worst pathology to progression of pathology with early assessment of stock develop, this meant that with a single and early visit, decision after being burnt, limited access (i.e., difficulty re-attending making on what to do with animals was based on somewhat stock), limited veterinary resources, professional desire and incomplete information. This is explored further below. responsibilities to alleviate suffering caused conservative decision making by assessing veterinarians. For example, a veterinarian Attitude and Ability of Owners who visited a farm and saw stock that may be able to be retained on the farm with treatment, but where there was a risk of Several veterinarians reported the attitude, resilience and ability further decline in their clinical status, were sometimes more likely of livestock owners to provide the care required

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attitude, resilience and ability further decline in their clinical status, were sometimes more likely of livestock owners to provide the care required for successful to euthanize the livestock in question, rather than recommend treatment was a criterion they used to decide on whether treatment of the stock and observe what happens over succeeding treatment should be pursued or whether livestock should days. Perhaps this could be phrased as the assessing veterinarians be euthanized. applied a precautionary welfare principle and euthanized stock For example: early in the progression of pathology. This likely lead to some limited excess euthanasia of livestock, similar to findings from “It’s a little bit of summing up what the producers are like? What previous research (18), but reduced welfare impacts and enabled they’re going to be able to manage how well you think that they’re going to be able to do it plus how much they know about animals pragmatic resource allocation. and treatment alone? But I tend to take a fairly hard approach. It’s As one veterinarian stated: a bit of a case of if in doubt, take it out on the first day.” [IV2] “I guess my theory was go hard, go early.” [IV6] As a further example from another veterinarian: “. . . .like if they were too traumatised, they couldn’t help themselves Decision Making Model let alone animals.” [IV5] Whilst there are several strategic treatment options available for bushfire injured livestock (see section “Strategic Options Practical Considerations Available”), there were two main options employed in most Veterinarians considered various practical features in any given situations by most veterinarians: Immediate euthanasia or treat scenario, to determine whether treatment was likely to be and

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al features in any given situations by most veterinarians: Immediate euthanasia or treat scenario, to determine whether treatment was likely to be and retain on the farm (either retention for normal production possible the subsequent days or weeks. For example, many or later culling). We present a simple model that represents the farms lost cattle yards when they burnt and had no ability decision-making process of the majority of veterinarians that to physically yard and treat injured livestock adequately. This were interviewed for these two options (treat or euthanasia). See meant that euthanasia for severely affected stock was a more Figure 2 for a summary, but the decision-making pathway is practical solution. outlined in text below. Other practical considerations include whether owners of The first consideration when deciding to euthanize or treat livestock had insurance policies for burnt livestock. Euthanasia was the severity of pathology. Mildly injured animals are was more likely if livestock owners had insurance for affected not considered in the model as they were generally treated livestock as it reduced the financial impact on the livestock simply on farm and retained. Severely burnt animals were owner. Several veterinarians mentioned insurance as an euthanized immediately. The difficult decision point was if an influential aspect to decision making. animal was moderately injured. If the animal had moderate burns then the animal could be considered for treatment and “Although it probably shouldn’t make a difference, but it’s always a retention or euthanasia on the farm. However, even moderately little bit easier to do that when you ask the owner of the animal if burnt livestock would be euthanized if the owners did not the stock are insured.” [IV2]

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bit easier to do that when you ask the owner of the animal if burnt livestock would be euthanized if the owners did not the stock are insured.” [IV2] have sufficient personal resources (emotional, time or money) Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 12 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock FIGURE 2 | A decision making process for treatment or euthanasia by assessing veterinarians attending moderately or severely bushfire injured livestock. Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 13 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock or practical resources (e.g., yards) to treat the animal and important to note that there we are aware of no present research relieve suffering. directly investigating managing livestock pain associated with An important consideration was whether assessing burns. In this study, the main pain relief available for prescription veterinarians had the ability to re-attend and reassess moderately were NSAIDs, and off-label use of topical local anaesthetics burnt livestock following an early visit, early during the designed for routine husbandry procedures. There were no development of pathology. That is, if there was uncertainty instances of the use of opioid analgesics, which are indicated for about the progression of pathology (e.g., marginal cases) and analgesia of severe burns in human and veterinary medicine (32). veterinarians could not re-attend to re-assess, then cautious Further research into the suitability and practicality of analgesics decision making about leaving stock alive and injured were made suitable for livestock with burn injuries that are intended for with veterinarians more likely to recommend euthanasia. To

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alive and injured were made suitable for livestock with burn injuries that are intended for with veterinarians more likely to recommend euthanasia. To human consumption, including the importance of pain relief for some extent veterinarian experience made a difference here. even mild burn injuries, would be beneficial to guide prescribing Inexperienced vets that were uncertain of progress were more in emergency conditions. likely to recommend euthanasia in the face of uncertainty to Consistent with other literature (18), assessment of livestock mitigate the risk of subsequent welfare issues. and subsequent recommendations for slaughter were at times However, after these considerations, for moderately burnt conservative, resulting in a limited excess euthanasia of livestock. livestock, the key considerations were the extent of feet damage This is not a reflection of the assessing veterinarians who and the extent and depth of skin burns. we interviewed, who appeared highly skilled, professional and compassionate. Instead, in some cases euthanasia may be associated with resource constraints, limitations in prognostic DISCUSSION assessment and the likelihood of progression of bushfire injuries over time, and the need to avoid welfare impacts on livestock. This research, which both describes current practices in Stock assessments occur rapidly after fires to ensure that severely management of bushfire-injured livestock and analyses the burnt livestock can be euthanized immediately. However, for decision-making behind these practices, has illuminated livestock that are injured moderately, at this early stage it may not challenges in the immediate post-fire period. Key areas identified be apparent if their clinical condition will progress to meet the include effective

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challenges in the immediate post-fire period. Key areas identified be apparent if their clinical condition will progress to meet the include effective prognostic assessment for livestock as well as criteria for immediate euthanasia or not. At this time point, burn how to make difficult decisions to address compromised animal injuries may not have progressed to their worse clinical severity. welfare while balancing the needs of the broader farm system Concurrently, many farms and livestock need assessing and that these animals exist within. With climate change associated access is limited and dangerous, or not prioritized by emergency with increased incidence of bushfires (7, 8), this study makes authorities. In these circumstances, veterinarians may need to an important contribution to the presently sparse research into limit the number of visits to any single fire-affected farm. For bushfire impacts on livestock, needed if the effects of bushfires these reasons, it appeared that if there was uncertainty about the on livestock are to be ameliorated in the future. This research severity of injuries, a precautionary decision to euthanize stock also provides some hypotheses about the risk factors for livestock immediately was sometimes taken, to avoid leaving livestock injury during bushfires that could be investigated further. alive with progressing injuries that will lead to adverse welfare It is also important to realize that many burnt livestock have outcomes over time. Farmers were often traumatized at this a biological ability to survive with severe injury, as evidenced by time and may not always be in a position to objectively discuss stock surviving and healing with no assessment and treatment for decision making. many weeks after fires had occurred. For example,

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bjectively discuss stock surviving and healing with no assessment and treatment for decision making. many weeks after fires had occurred. For example, some livestock Examining the decision making that occurred (Figure 2), the with significant portions of their bodies burnt to full thickness main decision node that can be modified is the re-assessment were observed by veterinarians for the first time many weeks after node. That is, veterinarians may be able to assess the need fires. This highlights the need to make decisions about euthanasia for euthanasia more accurately if they were able to re-attend on welfare grounds for severely injured animals, not on the ability these animals and ensure that they were not worsening to of an animal to survive, as undoubtedly a proportion can survive an unacceptable clinical state. The solution may therefore severe injuries. An ethical dilemma arising for those assessing be to provide additional veterinary resources and prioritize the livestock is: under what circumstances it is reasonably to veterinary access to farms to enable sufficient repeat visits to allow an animal to recover rather than be destroyed, and what allow additional time points to assess pathology and its effect measures (such as nursing treatment and appropriate pain relief) on animal welfare. However, practical difficulties will persist, are necessary to mitigate animal welfare compromise. Further including access remaining difficult and dangerous, veterinary investigation of this dilemma may be helpful but was beyond the resources frequently constrained, treatments expensive and scope of the present study. labour-intensive, and livestock owners still in a traumatized The decision on whether to treat or euthanize moderately state. The option of revisiting to

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our-intensive, and livestock owners still in a traumatized The decision on whether to treat or euthanize moderately state. The option of revisiting to reassess pathology before bushfire injured livestock was generally a difficult one with euthanasia is only indicated where adequate nursing care, impacts on the farmers who owned the stock including severe especially appropriate pain relief and the labor required to financial loss. However, injured livestock that are suffering administer it, is available for injured animals in the interim. excessively, that cannot for practical reasons receive analgesia, or The apparent absence of a modern burn classification system are unlikely to recover require euthanasia for welfare reasons. It is for livestock, such as is available in small animals (35) can limit Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 14 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock communication and assessment of livestock. For example, the unsurprising given the emergency that bushfires present, where communication of burns by veterinarians in the interviews was priorities appropriately include protection of life and assets, limited to full thickness and partial thickness burns. However, preservation of remaining livestock and emergency management in small animals, burns have been divided into a much more of the welfare of injured livestock, rather than conduct of granular classification system, including superficial, superficial research. These limitations informed the qualitative design of partial thickness, deep partial thickness and full thickness with a the present study, which aimed to collect detailed and useful key for dermal layers affected, wound characteristics and healing. data after the emergency

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present study, which aimed to collect detailed and useful key for dermal layers affected, wound characteristics and healing. data after the emergency (and the timeframe for meaningful data The development of a more granular classification system for collection from carcasses) had ceased. Importantly, of all the livestock, that was linked to healing or prognosis and welfare veterinarians interviewed, some having attended fires annually would be an important tool that could be used by veterinarians for 20 years, none had ever had the opportunity to conduct when assessing bushfire affected livestock. Despite this, the a formal post-mortem examination of fire-injured livestock, application of such a tool may be limited on some farms where for example to examine respiratory system damage. Such basic the ability to closely assess stock is limited due to damaged stock information may provide important insights into prognosis and handling facilities. possible treatments, and while we hope this can be investigated in Risk factors discussed by the veterinarians that affected the future, it would only be practical where veterinary resources were presence or severity of bushfire injury included proximity to in excess to immediate emergency response requirements. woody vegetation (such as forest) and features which tended Finally, it is important to consider this research in the context to trap stock in front of a fire (such as fences or blackberry of Australia’s livestock population. Despite very widespread fires, infestations in gullies). Chance also played a part, with the the number of livestock directly fire-injured was surprisingly interaction of when a fire reached a farm and the severity of modest. Even in a severely fire-affected district, where many weather conditions

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isingly interaction of when a fire reached a farm and the severity of modest. Even in a severely fire-affected district, where many weather conditions at that time having a major influence on fire farms were subject to bushfire, only 7% of cattle were killed. intensity and risk of injury to livestock. Whilst these losses are significant, especially to individual Conversely, there were several features that assessing farmers, it is not likely to lead to a large decline in the national veterinarians hypothesized could protect livestock from injury, herd. The widespread drought that preceeded these fires are likely based on their observations. One of the most important features to have had more significant impacts on the national herd due to was an adequate warning time of an impending fire. Where increased selling of stock and poor reproductive rates. the warning was adequate, farmers could move stock to safer In conclusion, this research suggests that most bushfire areas thus protecting them from fire, or implement fire-fighting injuries in livestock were associated with burns to the common actions. Safer areas for smaller producers were areas off farm, integument (especially hooves, but also skin and associated away from the fire. For larger producers, open paddocks away structures such as teats), although acute respiratory disease was from woody vegetation with short grass and/or water bodies, or also recognized. Based on veterinarian-reported risk factors, containing stock in dairy yards or cattle yards, were protective. key actions to protect livestock from bushfires could include However, many farmers were not perceived to have been able earlier and better warnings about where fires are so that stock to respond to this type of early warning of an approaching fire,

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ved to have been able earlier and better warnings about where fires are so that stock to respond to this type of early warning of an approaching fire, can be moved to protected locations, protecting livestock with sufficient to enable livestock to be moved to safer areas. Whilst active firefighting techniques and management of fuel loads some late warning times were due to the nature of the fire to reduce the intensity of fire. However, the unpredictability (sudden and unexpected), in other cases, fire warning systems of when exactly fire will reach a farm and the severity were inaccurate or slow or did not assimilate information from of weather conditions at that time appeared to influence nearby fires across jurisdictional borders. This was also reported livestock injury risks, rendering the idea of preventing all by the Australian Royal Commission into National Natural fire-injury to livestock very unlikely. Veterinary decisions for Disaster Arrangements (36). Therefore, faster warning times managing moderately injured livestock were complex and at with accurate data, including across jurisdictional borders are times uncertain, potentially leading to precautionary culling urgently needed during bushfires to enable producers to protect where prognostic assessment was uncertain. Prioritizing regular stock. Improvements to these systems have been recommended re-examinations of livestock after bushfire injury may reduce in recent bushfire inquiries (37). These recommendations, if unnecessary euthanasia, provided appropriate nursing care implemented will also assist farmers with response to fires by including pain relief can be provided. enabling livestock protection from burns. Other protective factors reported included active fire-fighting approaches, such as

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relief can be provided. enabling livestock protection from burns. Other protective factors reported included active fire-fighting approaches, such as establishing firebreaks before a fire, fighting fire with DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT back-burning or water, or defending stock with sprinklers and The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be fire hoses. made available by the authors, without undue reservation. In addition to burns to hooves, skin and other structures such as teats, acute respiratory disease was recognized by these veterinarians which may have important effects on both animal ETHICS STATEMENT welfare and prognosis in affected individuals. Published peer- reviewed research on livestock pathology and injuries due to fire The studies involving human participants were reviewed is presently extremely limited. This is an important gap although and approved by the University of Melbourne’s Human Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 15 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556 Cowled et al. Bushfire Impacts on Livestock Research Ethics Committee (Ethics ID 2057893.1). Written ACKNOWLEDGMENTS informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the The authors thank the University of Melbourne’s Faculty of institutional requirements. Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences Human Ethics Committee for their feedback on study design and ethical considerations. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS We thank the veterinarians who assisted by providing their time and expertise while conducting interviews. Their insights BC, MW, and MB-T contributed to the conception and design of were invaluable. We thank Agriculture Victoria and NSW the study. BC, JC, HC, and MD collected data. BC

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-T contributed to the conception and design of were invaluable. We thank Agriculture Victoria and NSW the study. BC, JC, HC, and MD collected data. BC analyzed the Local Land Services for their cooperation in the project. Anne data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. CP, MB-T, and Meyer is thanked for assisting with some key references for MW made strategic comments on the analysis and manuscript the qualitative methods, and a useful case study from her design. All authors contributed to manuscript revision and read own work. and approved the submitted version. FUNDING SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL This research was funded by Meat & Livestock Australia The Supplementary Material for this article can be found (MLA grant number: B.AHE.2102) and the Commonwealth online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets. Government of Australia and we acknowledge that funding. 2022.790556/full#supplementary-material REFERENCES 14. Morita N, Traber MG, Enkhbaatar P, Westphal M, Murakami K, Leonard SW, et al. Aerosolized alpha-tocopherol ameliorates acute lung injury following 1. Filkov AI, Ngo T, Matthews S, Telfer S, Penman TD. Impact of Australia’s combined burn and smoke inhalation injury in sheep. Shock. (2006). 25:277– catastrophic 2019/20 bushfire season on communities and environment. 82. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000208805.23182.a7 Retrospective analysis and current trends. J Saf Sci Resil. (2020) 1:44– 15. Morton JM, Fitzpatrick DH, Morris DC, White MB. Teat burns in dairy 56. doi: 10.1016/j.jnlssr.2020.06.009 cattle the prognosis and effect of treatment. Aust Vet J. (1987) 64:69– 2. Richards L, Brew N, Smith L. 2019−20 Australian bushfires—frequently asked 73. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1987.tb09617.x questions: a quick guide. In: Library P, editor

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34. Hanson RR. Management of burn injuries in the horse. Vet Clin Copyright © 2022 Cowled, Bannister-Tyrrell, Doyle, Clutterbuck, Cave, Hillman, N Am Equine Pract. (2005) 21:105–23. doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.200 Plain, Pfeiffer, Laurence and Ward. This is an open-access article distributed 4.11.006 under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, 35. Vaughn L, Beckel N, Walters P. Severe burn injury, burn shock, and distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original smoke inhalation injury in small animals. Part 2: diagnosis, therapy, author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication complications, and prognosis. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. (2012) 22:187– in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, 200. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2012.00728.x distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org 17 February 2022 | Volume 9 | Article 790556