Cowled et al. - 2022 - The Australian 20192020 Black Summer Bushfires A

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ORIGINALRESEARCHpublished:15February2022doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.790556 FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org1February2022|Volume9|Article790556 Editedby:BoudaVosoughAhmadi,EuropeanCommissionfortheControlofFootandMouthDisease(EuFMD),ItalyReviewedby:CherylWaldner,UniversityofSaskatchewan,CanadaMetteS.Herskin,AarhusUniversity,Denmark*Correspondence:BrendanD.Cowledbrendan@ausvet.com.auSpecialtysection:ThisarticlewassubmittedtoVeterinaryEpidemiologyandEconomics,asectionofthejournalFrontiersinVeterinaryScienceReceived:06October2021Accepted:17January2022Published:15February2022Citation:CowledBD,Bannister-TyrrellM,DoyleM,ClutterbuckH,CaveJ,HillmanA,PlainK,PfeifferC,LaurenceMandWardMP(2022)TheAustralian2019/2020BlackSummerBushfires:AnalysisofthePathology,TreatmentStrategiesandDecisionMakingAboutBurntLivestock.Front.Vet.Sci.9:790556.doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.790556TheAustralian2019/2020Black SummerBushfires:Analysisofthe Pathology,TreatmentStrategiesand DecisionMakingAboutBurnt Livestock

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:10.3389/fvets.2022.790556TheAustralian2019/2020Black SummerBushfires:Analysisofthe Pathology,TreatmentStrategiesand DecisionMakingAboutBurnt Livestock BrendanD.Cowled1,2*,MelanieBannister-Tyrrell1,MarkDoyle3,HenryClutterbuck3,JeffCave4,AlisonHillman1,KarrenPlain2,CaitlinPfeiffer5,MichaelLaurence6andMichaelP.Ward21AusvetPtyLtd.,Bruce,ACT,Australia,2FacultyofScience,SydneySchoolofVeterinaryScience,UniversityofSydney,Camden,NSW,Australia,3SouthEastLocalLandServices,Goulburn,NSW,Australia,4BiosecurityandAgricultureServices,AgricultureVictoria,Wodonga,VIC,Australia,5FacultyofVeterinaryandAgriculturalScience,MelbourneVeterinarySchool,UniversityofMelbourne,Parkville,VIC,Australia,6MeatandLivestockAustralia,NorthSydney,NSW,AustraliaIn2019/2020,Australiaexperiencedaseverebushfireevent,withmanytensofthousandsoflivestockkilledoreuthanized.Littlesystematicresearchhasoccurredtounderstandlivestockbushfireinjuries,riskfactorsforinjury,orhowtomakedecisionsaboutmanagementofbushfire-injuredlivestock.Addressingthisresearchgapisimportantasthereisanincreasingbushfireincidenceglobally.Thispaperpresentsqualitativeresearchfindingsaboutbushfire-injuredandkilledlivestockinthesouth-eastofAustraliaafterthe2019/2020Australianbushfires.Wedescribeobservedpathology,treatmentsused,andriskfactorsforinjury,thenusethematicanalysistounderstanddecisionmakingaboutmanagingfire-injuredlivestock.Livestockinjuredbythefiresshowedpathologypredominantlyassociatedwiththecommonintegument(feet,hoovesandskin)andsignsofacuterespiratorydamage.Itcouldtakeseveraldaysforthefullextentofburnstobecomeapparent,leavingprognosticdoubt.Treatmentstrategiesincludedimmediateeuthanasia,salvageslaughter,retentionforlaterculling,treatmentandrecoveryonfarm,hospitalizationandintensivetreatment,ornointervention.Riskfactorsreportedforlivestockinjuryincludedlackofwarningsaboutanimpendingfire,thetypeandamountofvegetationaroundlivestockandtheweatherconditionsonthedaythefirereachedlivestock.Movingstocktoanareawithlittlevegetationbeforefirearrivedwasseenasprotective.Decisionmakingregardinginjuredlivestockappearedinfluencedbythreemainthemes:(1)observationsontheseverityofpathology,clinicalsignsandlevelofprognosticdoubt,(2)pre-existingbeliefsaboutanimalwelfare(responsibilitytominimizeunnecessarysuffering)and(3)assumptionsaboutthefuture.Themanagementoflivestockwaslargelyappropriateduetotherapidprovisionofveterinaryexpertise.However,itislikelythatsomeinjuredlivestockwereeuthanizedduetoconservativeveterinaryadvicedrivenbyalackofopportunitytore-assessstock,withimpactsonfarmers.Infuture,resourcingregularrevisitsofinjuredlivestocktomanage

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock risksofgradualprogressionofburnpathologymayfacilitatemoreaccurateprognosticassessment,providedinjuredanimalscanreceiveappropriatepainrelief.Inaddition,amorecomprehensiveburnsclassificationsystemlinkedtoprognosisthatcanberapidlyappliedinthefieldmayassistassessments. Keywords:Australia,bushfire,wildfire,livestock,injury,riskfactors,euthanasia,decisionmakingINTRODUCTION Australiahaditshottestanddriestyearonrecordin2019 andenduredaseriesofheatwavesovermuchofAustraliain December2019( 1 ).Intheleaduptothis,muchofsoutheastAustraliahadsufferedaprotracteddroughtfrom2017with rainfallvaluesinNewSouthWales(NSW)andsouthern Queenslandnearorbelowpreviousrecordlowvalues( 1 ).TheaccumulatedForestFireDangerIndexinspring2019was significantlyhigherthaninanyotherspringonrecord( 1 ).Theninthespringandsummer,Australiaexperiencedaseverebushfireevent.Duringthisbushfireeventmorethan19millionhectaresoflandburnt,morethan3,000homesweredestroyedand33 peopledied( 1 , 2 ).Itwasestimatedthatthefiresandexposuretoparticulatematterledtoseveralhundredexcesshumandeathsandthousandsofhospitalizations( 3 ).Itwasestimatedinthemediathatmorethan56,000livestockwerekilledbyfireoreuthanizedinNSW,VictoriaandSouth Australia( 4 ).However,thetrueimpactonlivestockandlivestockproductionisunknown.Despitethis,thelivestockpopulation atriskintheseareasisrelativelyextensiveindicatingasmallproportionofstockwaslost.Forexample,livestockpopulation data( 5 , 6 )inbushfire-affectedregionsofNSWandVictoriaindicatethattherewere3.6millioncattleand21millionsheepinbushfire-affectedregions,althoughmanywouldnothavebeenclosetofirewithinthoseregionsbecauseofthecoarsescaleofthepopulationdata(BC,unpublisheddata).Thelocalimpact onsomeindividualfarmerswasveryhigh.Forexample,ina

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tofirewithinthoseregionsbecauseofthecoarsescaleofthepopulationdata(BC,unpublisheddata).Thelocalimpact onsomeindividualfarmerswasveryhigh.Forexample,ina recentcasecontrolstudy,somefarmssufferedanimpactofup to$2million(AUD)anddeathsofalllivestockonafarm(BC, unpublisheddata).Bushfires(wildfires)areincreasinginfrequencyglobally,especiallyasaresultoflongerfireseasonsintemperateorborealregions( 7 , 8 ).Littleresearchhasbeenconductedontheimpactsofbushfiresonlivestockinanypartoftheworld.Forexample, asystematicliteraturereviewbyco-authors(BC,AHandCP) revealedbarelyadozenpublications,mostlycasestudiesin Australia( 9 22 ).Morespecificpublishedresearchonpathology,injuriesandriskfactorsforburnsduetobushfireareevenmorelimited.Thispaucityofliteraturelimitsunderstandingandtheabilitytomanagebushfireaffectedstockinanoptimalway. Thisisespeciallyconcerninggiventheincreasingfrequencyandseverityofsuchevents.Itcanbeimpossibleordifficulttocollectfielddataduringbushfireemergencies.Undersuchcircumstancesitisdifficulttocollectdataasveterinaryandresearchresourcesarescarceordifficulttodeploy.Qualitativeresearchmethodsseektouncoveradiversityofviewsandmeaningsthatpeoplebringtoan issueunderinvestigation( 23 ).Suchapproachescanprovidetheveterinaryprofessionwithinsightsintotopicsthatarehardtoreachwithmorewidelyusedquantitativeresearchmethods( 23 ),suchasobservationalepidemiologicalstudies.Theobjectivesofthisstudywere:1.Todescribethepathology,treatmentstrategies,treatmentspracticallyused,andriskfactorsforinjuryreportedby assessingveterinarians2.Toanalyzethedecisionmakingbyveterinariansassessingandadvisingonbushfireaffectedlivestock,especiallyhow theydecidedwhethertotreatoreuthanizebushfire- injuredlivestock.MATERIALSANDMETHODS Aqualitativestudywasimplementedtogatherdatato

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ivestock,especiallyhow theydecidedwhethertotreatoreuthanizebushfire- injuredlivestock.MATERIALSANDMETHODS Aqualitativestudywasimplementedtogatherdatato understandtheperspectivesanddecision-makingofprofessionalveterinarianswhenassessingandrespondingtobushfire-affectedlivestock.Themethodologyreportedhereisstructuredto complywiththeConsolidatedCriteriaforReportingQualitative Research(COREQ)( 24 ).ResearchTeamandReflexivity Threeauthors(BC,MWandMB-T)developedthesemi- structuredinterviewguideindependentlyofotherauthors (seeSupplementaryMaterial).Theinterviewswereconductedbytheleadauthor(BC).Theanalyseswerefirstconducted byBCwithsubsequentassistanceandcommentaryfromall co-authors.BCisamaleveterinaryepidemiologist(PhD, FANZCVS)andbeefproducerwhowasfromabushfireaffected farm.MB-Tisafemalemedicalepidemiologist(PhD)who hasextensiveexperienceinqualitativeandmixedmethods epidemiologyandstrategicallyassistedintheprojecttoensuremethodologieswerewell-implemented.MWisamaleveterinary epidemiologist(Ph.D.,FANZCVS)andhasusedqualitative methodsinveterinaryepidemiologyforseveralyears.Theinterviewer(BC)establishedanewprofessionalrelationshipwithmostoftheveterinariansinterviewedforthepurposesofthestudy.However,BChadworkedwiththreeof theveterinariansduringotherprojectsinthepast.Participantswereawareoftheinterviewer’squalificationandbackgroundthroughadvancednoticeandinformationaboutthestudy, andtheintervieweeswereadvisedaboutBC’scredentialsandexperiencewhentheinterviewoccurred. StudyDesign InformantVeterinarianSelection Thisresearchpurposivelyselectedageographicareafromwhich tosamplekeyinformants(veterinarians).Thisareawasinthe FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org2February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock southeastofNSWandinnorthernVictoria,andwasthemain bushfire-affectedregioninsoutheastAustraliainDecember2019andJanuary2020.Thisincludedthefollowingdistricts:Bega,Bombala,Braidwood,Goulburn,Milton/KangarooValley,and RiverinaintheSoutheastLocalLandServicesregionofNSW, andUpperMurraydistrictintheHumeregionofVictoria. TheseregionsareshowninFigure1withoverlyingbushfireextent.Thegovernmentdistrictveterinarianfromeachdistrictwithintheregionsthatrespondedtofireinthe2019/20bushfireseasonwereincludedinthesamplingframeforthisresearch.Inaddition,aprivatelyemployedveterinarianwasalsointerviewed,onrecommendationfromalocaldistrictveterinariandueto theirextensiveinvolvementduringthefireresponse.Thus,eightveterinarianswerecontactedbyemailandtelephonecallsandallparticipatedandwereinterviewed.Veterinariansallhadatleast3yearsofruralclinicalexperienceandhadattendedatleastonebushfireresponse.Fourveterinarianshadattendedfiresduringtwoormorebushfire seasons,withoneattendingfiresfor20seasons,includingasaprofessionalfirefighter.Fourveterinarianshadonlyattendedfiresinoneseason,the2019/2020season.Allveterinarians individuallyvisitedatleast5andupto100(mean49farms,95%CI:20 78)bushfire-affectedfarmsinthe2019/2020season.Veterinarianswereencouragedtospeakaboutallbushfirestheyhadattendedasveterinarianstoassessandtreatlivestock,notjustthe2019/2020fires. DataCollection Thesameinterviewguidewasusedthroughoutalleight interviews.Mainsectionsoftheinterviewwere:backgroundinformationabouttherespondent;descriptionsofpathology seen;treatmentofburntlivestock;protectivefactorson-farmthatmayhavepreventedinjuries;andfarmrecovery.See SupplementaryMaterialwheretheinterviewguideisdetailed.Thequestionsintheinterviewguidewereaskedasopen-

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thatmayhavepreventedinjuries;andfarmrecovery.See SupplementaryMaterialwheretheinterviewguideisdetailed.Thequestionsintheinterviewguidewereaskedasopen- endedquestionsoftheinformantveterinarians.Eachinterviewlasted30 60min.Theinterviewsoccurredinthesecondhalfofcalendaryear2020,∼9 12monthsaftertheendofthebushfiresinthe2019/2020season.Threeinterviewsoccurredface toface.COVID-19precautionsresultedintheremaining fiveinterviewsbeingconductedbyonlinevideo-conferencing(Zoom:https://zoom.us/).Theface-to-faceinterviewsoccurredintheinformantveterinariansworksetting(office).Interviewswereone-on-onewithjusttheinterviewer(BC)andinformantveterinarianpresent.Fouroftheinformantveterinariansweremenandfourwerewomen.Theirmedianagewas41years(range:28 55).Whereclarificationswererequiredafterinterviews,veterinarianswerecontactedviaemailorphonecalls.Thisoccurredonthreeoccasions.InterviewaudiorecordingsweretranscribedinitiallyusingAmazonWebServices(https://aws.amazon.com/)and theAmazonTranscribetool,whichusesmachinelearning. Automaticallytranscribedworddocumentsweremanually checkedandcorrectedbyiterativelylisteningtoandcorrectingtranscripts.Thesetranscriptswereviewedonlybytheresearchteamandwerenotreturnedtoinformantveterinarians.The manuscriptwasreturnedtothreekeyinformantsforcomments. DescriptiveandDataAnalysis Aninitialdescriptiveanalysisfocusedonidentifyingand describingthepathology,treatmentstrategies,treatmentsusedandriskfactorsidentifiedbytheinformants.Aninductive, semanticthematicanalysis[followingtheapproachofBraun andClarke( 25 )]toexplorethedecisionmakingprocessesveterinariansusedtodecidehowtorespondtobushfire-

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emanticthematicanalysis[followingtheapproachofBraun andClarke( 25 )]toexplorethedecisionmakingprocessesveterinariansusedtodecidehowtorespondtobushfire- injuredlivestock.TheinterviewrecordswereimportedintoNVIVO,release1.3(https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software/home).Duringcoding,theinterviewmaterialwasreadandre-read,andeachidearelatedtotheresearch questionwasidentifiedandmarkedorcodedinNVIVO. Themeswerederivedfromthecodegroupings.Subthemeswere organizedwithinthemes.Severaliterationsoccurredbeforefinalthemesandsubthemeswereidentified.Thesub-themes describedexhaustivelytheideasidentifiedintheinterviewmaterialswiththeexceptionoffarmrecovery.Thistopicwas arbitrarilyexcludedfromanalysisforbrevityandbecausethecontentdidnotalignorenhancetheemergentthemesintherestoftheinterviewmaterial. Ethics ThisresearchwasapprovedbyTheUniversityofMelbourne’s HumanResearchEthicsCommittee(ethicsID2057893.1).Key researchers(BC,CP)underwenttraumainformedcaretraining.Aplainlanguagestatementwasprovidedtoinformantsthat describedtheresearchproject,approach,whattheresearchwasabout,theinformant’srole,withdrawal,andpossiblebenefitsoftheresearch.Averbalconsentformwasdevelopedand administeredtoinformants. RESULTS Theseresultsaredividedintotwoparts.Thefirstpartis thedescriptiveresults,namelythesimpledescriptionofwhat veterinarianstoldusaboutthekeyareasofinterest(e.g.,observedpathology).Thesecondpartpresentsanalyticalfindingsabout howveterinariansdecidedwhethertoeuthanizeortreatbushfire-injuredlivestock. DescriptiveAnalysis Theinterviewmaterialprovidedseveraltopicareaswhen conductingdescriptiveanalyses.Thisincluded: •Externalgrosspathologyandclinicalsigns•Possibletreatmentoutcomes•Riskandprotectivefactorsforbushfireexposed

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onductingdescriptiveanalyses.Thisincluded: •Externalgrosspathologyandclinicalsigns•Possibletreatmentoutcomes•Riskandprotectivefactorsforbushfireexposed livestockinjury.Thesetopicsaredescribedinthefollowingsections. ExternalGrossPathologyandClinicalSigns Thisincludesinformationthatdescribesthewidespectrumofgrosspathologyinbushfireaffectedsheepandcattleobserved FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org3February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock FIGURE1|AmapdisplayingthetworegionsofAustraliawherethestudyoccurredwithbushfireextentoverlaid.ThelocationofthestudysitewithintheAustraliancontinentisinlaid. byattendingveterinarians.Akeyfindingwasthelimitedabilityforinformantveterinarianstoexamineanythingotherthan grossexternalpathology,aspostmortemexaminationsand otherinvestigationswerenotconductedduetothenature oftheemergency.Therewasawidespectrumofseverityof injuryreported. ContextinTermsofPrevalenceofDeadand EuthanizedLivestock Datadescribingthenumberofcattlethateitherdiedduetoburnsorwereeuthanizedinthefiresin2019/2020intheirdistrict wereprovidedbyoneveterinarianonlyandarereportedhere. Similardatawerenotaccessedfromotherdistricts.IntheupperMurraydistrictthereareapproximately55000cattle.3580cattle(7%)wereeuthanizedordiedduetobushfireburns.Nearlyall thedistrictfarminglandburnedduringthefire,andtherewereextensiveareasofbush.Thismeansthatmostcattlehadrelativelyclosecontactwithfire,sometimesveryseverefire.Therewere2053sheepkilledintheupperMurraydistrict,buttheunderlyingsheeppopulationwasnotabletobeaccuratelyestimated.Ofthe3,580cattlekilledduringbushfires,only373(12%)wereeuthanizedbyAgricultureVictoria(thestateagriculturaldepartment)afterveterinaryassessmentand88%dieddueto burnsorwereeuthanizedbyfarmers.Of2052sheepkilledduringthebushfires,473(23%)wereeuthanizedbyAgricultureVictoriaafterveterinaryassessmentand77%diedduetoburnswithno interventionorwereeuthanizedbyfarmers.VeterinariansCanOnlyReportonExternalPathology Attendingveterinarianswereoperatinginadisasterareaandnotedtheywereworkingwithvariouspracticalandlegal impedimentsincluding:

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yReportonExternalPathology Attendingveterinarianswereoperatinginadisasterareaandnotedtheywereworkingwithvariouspracticalandlegal impedimentsincluding: •Bushfireswerestillactiveleadingtodangerousconditionsthatlimitedfarmaccess•Navigationwasdifficultasoftenveterinarianswereoperatinginunfamiliarareas,roadsignsandrecognisablefeatureshadburnt,ordatabasesoffarmlocationswerenotavailableduetotelecommunicationsfailures.•Statesofemergencyandotherlegalcontrolsweredeclaredandveterinarianscouldnotalwaysaccessfarmswithoutescortsorpermission,andveterinaryaccesswasnotalwaystreatedas highpriority.Oneveterinarianwasappreciativeofbeingkept safe,butexplainedthatitdelayedtheirresponse: Sotherewasanincidentresponseatthecouncil,andtheincident controllerwaspolice. Yeahhecameouthereandsaidyoucan’tgoout.Thentheyhad acoupleofprioritycallsandwewereescortedout.Butitjusttookawhileforthewheelstostartturning.Andthenitwasonlyatthe pointwherethingswerereallysafe.Youdon’tmindthemtryingtokeepmesafe,butalotofdecisionshadalreadybeenmadeinthatin thattimeframe,withoutadvice. [InterviewedVeterinarian(IV1)]•Therewasahighworkloadwithhundredsoffarmstovisitin adistrictandonlyalimitedanimalhealthworkforce. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org4February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock Together,thesefactorsresultedinveterinarianshavingalimitedtimeavailabletoattendabushfireaffectedfarm,althoughthe veterinariansvisiteduptodozensorhundredsoffarmseach.Thus,veterinarianswereonlyabletoperformanexternal examinationofbushfireaffectedlivestockandnoinformation isavailablefromveterinariansonthepossibleinternalgrosspathologyassociatedwithbushfireaffectedstock(e.g.,pathologyaffectingthelungsandpleura).Inaddition,severalinformantveterinariansreportedthatasmallproportionofstockonfarmswereexaminedfromadistanceasstockhandlingfacilitieswereburnt.Thus,thereisonlyadetailedunderstandingoftheexternalgrosspathologyassociatedwithbushfiresfromthisstudy.Forexample,oneveterinarianstated therearealwaysanumberofanimalstoassessandyouarealwaysunderthatbit oftimepressure,whetherit’sonthepropertythatyou’reon,thatyou’rehavingtogetthroughtheanimalsthataredamagedor whetherit’sbecauseyou’vegottogetontoanotherproperty.So,no,I’veneversortofstoppedtoseethingsfurther. [IV2]AnatomicalAreaAffectedbyFire Areasobservedwithsignsofpathologyincludedthecommon integumentsuchashoovesandskinandassociatedstructures(suchasudderandteats),eyesandtherespiratorysystem.Themostcommonareasaffectedbyfirewerethehooves,frommildburnsofthecoronaryband(periople)orheelbulb tocompletesloughingofthehoof.Theperiopleisthenarrow stripalongthecoronarydermisborderthatisatthejunctionbetweenskinandwallofhoofabovethehoof( 26

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lbulb tocompletesloughingofthehoof.Theperiopleisthenarrow stripalongthecoronarydermisborderthatisatthejunctionbetweenskinandwallofhoofabovethehoof( 26 ).However,allveterinariansinterviewedthatspokeofthisareareferredtoitasthecoronaryband,similarlytohorses.Theauthorsthusgenerallyrefertothisareaasthecoronarybandwithinthisstudy.Skinburnswerealsorelativelycommon,especiallyburntteats.Teatswerereportedtoeasilyinjuredstructureswithgoodlikelihoodofhealing,butwithocclusionstomilkflowfrequentlylimitingtheaffectedcoworewe’slaterproductivevalue(i.e.,offspringwilllaterstarvewhenbornasmilkflowoccluded). Largesectionsofburntskinwererarer.Caseswithlargeareasofburntskinwereassociatedwithstockgrazinginheavilyvegetatedareas,whichwasuncommon.However,skinburnsvariedfroma smallproportionofthebodyto100%oftheskinburntandfrom superficialtofullthicknessburns.Areasofskinthatwereclosetothegroundornotprotectedbywoolorhairweremoresusceptibletoburns.Thisincluded theaxillaryandinguinalareas,scrotum,prepuce,udders,vulvaandaroundthelegsandfeet.Clinicalsignsofrespiratoryinjurywerereportedtoberelativelyfrequentandweregenerallyacuteinnature.Itisuncertainwhatgrossrespiratorypathologywasoccurringasnolivestockwereexaminedpost-mortem.However,clinicalsignsofdyspnoea,exerciseintolerance,increasedrespiratoryrates,openmouthedbreathing,frothynasaldischargeanddeathindicatesthatthepathologywassometimeslikelyverysevere.Inaddition,thereweremanycasesofnasaldischargeanddyspnoeawithout severesignsordeath.Eyeinjurieswererarerandincludedsubsequentpinkeyeorcornealburns.Somecornealburnsweresoseverethattheanimalwasblindedwithscartissue,evidentinsurvivingcattlesometimeaftertheburnsoccurred. SeverityofGrossPathologyandClinicalSigns Therewasaverywidespectrumofexternalgrosspathology

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ssue,evidentinsurvivingcattlesometimeaftertheburnsoccurred. SeverityofGrossPathologyandClinicalSigns Therewasaverywidespectrumofexternalgrosspathology observedbyveterinarians.Thishasbeencategorizedintomild,moderateandseverepathologyinthisstudybasedontheir likelyprognosis,althoughthereisacontinuousspectrum.Othershaveclassifiedsimilarly( 18 ).Amildclassificationindicatedthatlivestockwereinjuredinaminorwayandcouldbe retainedonthefarmforlaterbreedingormanagedcullingwhensuitable.Amoderateclassificationindicatedthatlivestockweremoreseverelyinjured,withcattlerequiringsalvageslaughteroradequatetreatmentandnursingonthefarm.Asevere classificationindicatedthatiflivestockwerenotalreadydeadtheywouldrequireimmediateeuthanasia.Thesedefinitionsdonotincludecategorizationbasedontheseverityofanimalwelfareimpacts.Itisplausibleand acceptedthatbushfireinjuriesinlivestockaffectanimalwelfare,sometimesveryseverely( 11 , 17 , 18 ).However,thereisinsufficientpreviousresearchtounderstandtherelativedegreeofsufferingassociatedwithdifferentbushfireinjuries.Injuriesclassifiedasmoderateorsevereclearlyhavesubstantivewelfareimpacts,andsomenegativewelfareeffectislikelyalsopresentfor mildinjuries. •MildGrosspathologyinmildcasesincludedsingeingofhair(cattle)andwool(sheep)orsmallsuperficialburnstoexposedskin (e.g.,vulva,inguinalandaxillaryareasandudders).Inaddition,somefootburnswereevidentthatledtomildlaminitisand liftingoftheheelbulb,andclinicalsignsassociatedwith weightbearinglameness.Somesubtlerespiratorysignscouldbeevident(e.g.,serousormucousnasaldischarge)indicativeofrespiratorypathology.Anotherclinicalsignobservedinmildcaseswasthatsomelivestockwerequietanddepressedandnotasactiveasusual, orweregenerallystiffwhenmoving.Whenexamined,therewas

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therclinicalsignobservedinmildcaseswasthatsomelivestockwerequietanddepressedandnotasactiveasusual, orweregenerallystiffwhenmoving.Whenexamined,therewas noobviousgrosspathology(e.g.,burntfeet).Oneveterinarianascribedthesesignstoapossiblegeneralizedmyopathydueto runningfromfire. •ModerateModerategrosspathologyincludedburnstovariouspartsofthe commonintegument(i.e.,skin,hoovesetc.)anddamagetotherespiratorysystem.Feetwiththeirsensitivetissuesareparticularlysusceptibletofire,inbothsheepandcattle.Veterinariansspokefrequentlyabouttheimportanceofassessingdamagetothecoronaryband,theconnectionbetweentheproximalhoofandskinoftheleg. Incasesofmoderatepathologythecoronarybandmaybemildly burned,butnotseverelyenoughtoleadtoseparationoftheskinofthelegandthehoof.Skinburnswereconsideredmoderatewhenasmallproportionofthebodywasburnt(e.g.,<5 10%),andthiswasnotgenerallyfullthickness.Thisfrequentlyincludeddamagetoteats[alsosee( 16 )]andotherexposedareas(e.g.,vulva,inguinal FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org5February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock andaxillaryareas).Itisinterestingtonotedamagetoprepuceorscrotumswasonlyrarelydiscussed,andthismayreflecttherelativelysmallproportionofentiremaleanimalsinAustralianlivestockpopulationsinbushfireaffectedareas. •SevereFlocksofsheepcouldbefounddeadandpackedtogether.Here sheephadpresumablyflockedtogetherasthefireapproached withsheepontheinsidefortheflockoftensuffocatedand sheepontheoutsidedeadfromburns.Incattlethisbehavior wasnotreported,insteaddeadandburntcattleweregenerally asmallerproportionoftheherdandweredispersedacross widerareas.Severelyaffectedstockincludedstockthatwerefounddeadwith100%skinburncoverage.However,somestockwerestill alivebutcomatoseandrecumbentevenwithextensiveburns (e.g.,100%)totheirbodieswhenvisitedoneormoredaysafterthefirehadoccurred.Skinburnscouldbefullthicknessandacrossmuchofthebody,sothattheanimalappearedcharred.Forexample:Veterinarian: Therewasonefarmthatwewentto,thatthebiosecurityofficerwhowaswithmedidn’trealisethatthey wereHerefords. Interviewer: OhhethoughttheywereAngus,becausetheywereblack? Veterinarian: Yes,itwasn’ttillwecameacrossonethathadcalvedpostfire. Yes,ithadcalvedandwecouldseeitwasadeadHereford calf. [IV3]Otherskinburnsmaybelessthanthewholebody,butstill extensiveenoughtoleadtoseverepainandsufferingorlater deathastimepasses.Otherstockthatwereseverelyaffectedincludedthosewithsevererespiratorydisease,suchaswithincreasedrespiratoryrates,exerciseintolerance(hypoxia),openmouthedbreathingandfrothynasaldischarge.Thisindicatessevereandacute

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ratorydisease,suchaswithincreasedrespiratoryrates,exerciseintolerance(hypoxia),openmouthedbreathingandfrothynasaldischarge.Thisindicatessevereandacute respiratorypathology,presumablyassociatedwithburnstotherespiratorysystem.Hoofpathologywasaparticularlyimportantarea.Acommonpathologicalfindingwasthatthecoronarybandhadburned.Thiscouldpresentinitiallyasacrackedorblisteredcoronarybandbeforecompleteseparationbetweenthehoofandtheskinof thelegasthecoronarybandsplitandlostintegrity.Thiswouldoftenresultinthehooffallingoffthefootasitwouldleadto thecoronarydermisseparatingfromtheoverlyinghoof.The sloughedhoofwouldappearnormalandwouldleaveexposed theunderlyingtissuesofthehoof(e.g.,underlyingdermis,digitalcushionandphalanxbones).Thesestockwereextremelylame andwereusuallyrecumbent,orsometimesfoundinwaterbodies(dams)whichtheveterinariansinterpretedasanattemptto relievepain. TimetoDevelopPathology Mostinformantveterinariansdiscussedthatittakesseveraldaysforthefullextentofburnstobecomeevident.Forexample, onthedayafterafire,burntfeetcanappearrelativelynormal,withjustaninflamedcoronaryband.However,over3 4days, iftheburnissevereenough,theperiople(coronaryband)can split,thecoronarydermiscanreleaseandthehoofcanslough off.Likewise,skinburnsonthebodyorextremitiescanappear relativelynormalonthefirstday(forexampleasubtleleatheringoftheskinwhereskinlosesitselasticity).However,afterseveraldaysitcanbecomeaneschar(anecroticsloughofskin)andafterseveralweeksbealargegranulomawithskinmigrationfromtheedges(iftheanimalsurvives).Forexample:Veterinarian:And,actually,IsawafewcattlethatIshotthatwouldhavebeenburntthreeweeksbeforeIgottothem,bythetimethatIsawthem.Andsoprobablythreeweeksbeforetheywouldnothave lookedthatbadlyburnt.ButwhenIgottothem,theyhadsheetsof skinhangingoffthem.

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ottothem,bythetimethatIsawthem.Andsoprobablythreeweeksbeforetheywouldnothave lookedthatbadlyburnt.ButwhenIgottothem,theyhadsheetsof skinhangingoffthem. Interviewer:Musclesexposed,subcutaneoustissue?Veterinarian:Yeah,Yeah,itwas.Itwouldhavebeenthefullamountofskinwashangingoffthem.SoIwouldthinkthatday oneifI’dseenthem,Iprobablywouldhavethoughtthattheywereamildlyburntanimal,threeweekslaterthereweresheetsofskinhangingoffthem.[IV2]Otherstudieshavealsofoundthatpathologydevelopsover time,includingoveraperiodofdaysandweeks( 12 ).Itisnotedthattheprolongedtimetodevelopmentofvisual grosspathologydoesnotreflectthetimeforpaintobe perceivedbyaburntanimal.Forexample,immediatepain maybeassociatedwithnociceptorsbeingstimulated;animal burnmodelsdemonstratethatinflammationbeginsimmediatelyascellsareinjuredastheyreleasepro-inflammatoryfactors withinflammationalsoassociatedwithpain( 27 ).Bushfireinjuredlivestockhavedemonstratedclinicalsignsconsistent withpainafterbushfireinjury,forexampleinappetence,sternal recumbencyandreluctancetomove( 12 ).Appropriatepainmanagementshouldthereforebeconsidered,evenifearly examinationdoesnotsuggestsevereinjury. PossibleTreatmentOutcomes StrategicOptionsAvailable Severelybushfireaffectedlivestockoftendiedonthefarmbeforeveterinaryassessment.However,forlivestockthatareburnedwithlessseverity,orforwell-resourcedlivestockownerswhomaybeabletotreatstock,managementoptionsareavailable. Thissectionexplorestheseveraloptionsinformantveterinariansconsideredforburntlivestock,eachwithrelativeadvantagesanddisadvantages.Theseinclude: •ImmediateeuthanasiaAbushfireaffectedlivestockanimaliseuthanizedonthefarmoforigin,usuallywitharifleshottothebrain.Thisoptionisindicatedforstockthatareseverelyfireaffected,wherewelfareisseverelycompromisedandthatcannotbe

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thefarmoforigin,usuallywitharifleshottothebrain.Thisoptionisindicatedforstockthatareseverelyfireaffected,wherewelfareisseverelycompromisedandthatcannotbe successfullytreated.Ingeneral,euthanasiawasreportedtobeindicatedwhenhooveshadalreadysloughed(orwereconsideredlikelytosloughinthenearfuture)orwherefullthicknessskinburnswereevidentacross∼5 20%ofthebodyormoreandthosestockwerenotfittotransporttoanabattoir. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org6February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock Thiswasacommonstrategicoptionemployedbyveterinariansassessingmoderatelyorseverelyfireaffected livestockandisin-linewithpublishedgovernment guidelines( 28 ).•SalvageslaughterAbushfire-affectedanimalisimmediatelytransportedto anabattoirandslaughteredpromptlyonarrivalundera commercialarrangement.Ifananimalwasbushfire-affectedandrequiredeuthanasia(asabove)butwasfitfortheintendedjourney(fittoload)under theAustralianAnimalWelfareStandardsandGuidelinesfortheLandTransportofLivestock( 29 , 30 ),itcouldbeslaughteredatanabattoirasanalternativetoon-farmeuthanasia.Briefly,afittoloadanimalisonethatcanwalkindependently,isfree fromsevereinjuryordistressandisstrongenoughtomakethejourney.Ananimalthatisnotfittoloadwouldincludewhere itsconditionis likelytofurthercompromiseitswelfareduringtransport ( 29 ).Thiswasreportedtohavetheadvantageofbeinglogisticallymorefeasible(e.g.,on-farmdisposalofbodiesisnotrequiredandresponseresourcesnotallocatedtodestructionoflivestock)andmoreacceptablefortheproducerasitreturnssomefinancialvaluefromtheslaughteredcattletotheproducer.However,salvageslaughterwasusedcautiously.Veterinariansconsidereditanethicalobligationtoavoidunduesuffering ininjuredlivestock,andtransportingananimalthatisnot fittoloadisalsolegislatedasanactofcrueltyandliableto prosecution.Therefore,aconservativeassessmentoffitnesstoloadwascommoninborderlinecases.Inaddition,ifthereareobviousvisiblesignsofburnsontheanimal,itislikelythatthesepartsoftheanimalwouldbecondemned,forexample duetooedemainburntareas(ortheentireanimalifthe burnswereextensive).Thiscouldmakeprocessingtheanimal financiallyunviable.Atypicalexampleofananimalthatmay qualifyforsalvageslaughterwouldbeacowwithaburntteatsthatwouldnothaveaproductivefutureandthatcouldbe

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nanciallyunviable.Atypicalexampleofananimalthatmay qualifyforsalvageslaughterwouldbeacowwithaburntteatsthatwouldnothaveaproductivefutureandthatcouldbe slaughteredpromptlyinanearbyabattoirwithminimalcarcasscondemnations.Whilstamodestlyinjuredanimallikethis mayexperiencesomewelfarecompromiseonthejourney(e.g., painfulteats),decisionmakingappearedtobeacompromise betweenpracticalities(abilitytoeuthanizeanddisposeof bodies),animalwelfareandfinancialcompensationforthe farmer(farmerwelfare).Particularcarewastakenbyveterinarianstoassessthehoofstructure(toensurethatthehoofwouldremainintactduringtransporttotheabattoir),thatslaughterwouldbeimmediate(i.e.,thattheabattoirhadavailabilitytoslaughterstockimmediately)andthatthejourneylengthwassuitablegiventhestateoftheanimal,basedontheveterinarian’sassessment. [SalvageSlaughter]wouldbeOKiftheanimalscouldstillwalkontoatruck.Andifudderswereburnttoapointwherethey wouldn’tbeusableforbreedingstock.Irecommendedstraighttoanabattoir. TherewereafewwherewhenIwaslookingattheirfeet,Ifelt liketheywerestilllame,andIcouldn’tethicallyfeelcomfortablethemgettingontoatruck.Sotheyweregiventheoptiontotreatoreuthanise. [IV4]Cooperationwithlivestocksellingagentsassistedtheprocess,astheyhadcontactwithlocalabattoirsandcouldarrangea guaranteedprocessingslot.Livestockagentsreportedlyworkedveryhardfortheclients,exhibitingbraveryandaltruismduringtheprocessoffacilitatingrapidsalvageslaughterandminimizewelfareimpacts.Asoneveterinarianstated: Theagentswereonthegroundbeforewewere........Hedida phenomenaljob,heisahero. [IV3]•RetainandculllaterSomestockhadminordamagethatcouldbetreatedonfarm, withrecoveryexpectedwithoutongoingsubstantialanimal welfareimpacts.Thismayincludethosestockwithburntteat tips.Thesestockwouldlikelyhaveapoorproductivefuture,and

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ryexpectedwithoutongoingsubstantialanimal welfareimpacts.Thismayincludethosestockwithburntteat tips.Thesestockwouldlikelyhaveapoorproductivefuture,and wereofteninsub-optimalbodyconditionduetothedroughtthatwasconcurrentwiththefireseason.However,keepingthemon farmtorecoverforseveralmonthsallowedtheseanimalstoput oncondition,enablingimprovedcarcassqualityforcommercialslaughteratalaterdate. •NointerventionWhilstretainingburntstockonfarmwithnotreatment wasnotadvocatedbyveterinarians,thissometimesoccurred.Thismayhavebeenbecausecattledisappearedintobushland (unrestrainedbyfences)orwerenotnoticedornotconsideredbytheirtraumatizedowners.Somelivestockdidrecover withoutinterventionincasesreportedbyveterinariansalthoughlikelyexperiencedanegativeanimalwelfarestateduring theirrecovery. •TreatonfarmandnormalproductivecapacityinthefutureSomeinjuredlivestockcouldberetainedonfarmwith appropriateveterinaryandnursingcare.Theycouldthenbe expectedtorecoverandhaveanormalproductivelifeinthe future.Asanexample,oneproduceroptedtoeuthanizemany oftheewesonherfarmafterafirebutretainedmostofthe ramstoconservethegeneticlineofsheep.Theseramshadtheirburnsbandagedanddressedandreceivedappropriatefoodand medication(systemicantibioticsandpainrelief)overalongperiodoftimeuntiltheirhoovesgrewback.Spermmotilitywas assessedpostrecoverytoconfirmthattheirlong-termfertilitywasadequate. •HospitalizationandintensivetreatmentAnalternativemanagementpathwayistoreferstocktoa veterinaryhospitalforintensivetreatment.However,inthebushfireaffectedregionstherewereveryfewlargeanimal hospitalssuitableforhospitalizationoflargeanimalsandcapacitywaslimited.Inaddition,transportwasdifficultandtreatmentwouldhavebeentooexpensivegiventhevalueofmostofthe animalsthathadbeenburnt.Nosheeporcattlewerereported

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imited.Inaddition,transportwasdifficultandtreatmentwouldhavebeentooexpensivegiventhevalueofmostofthe animalsthathadbeenburnt.Nosheeporcattlewerereported hospitalizedbyinformantveterinarians. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org7February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock Somegovernmentveterinariansreportedthataminorityoflocalprivateveterinarianswereoccasionallytreatingstockinthefield(insituonafarm)thattheydeemedshouldhavebeeneuthanizedforwelfarereasons.Thetreatmentprovided wasreportedlyguidedbytreatmentrecommendationsforotherburntlivestockspecies(horses)inintensivecareorhospitalsettings( 31 ).However,thefieldtreatmentthatoccurredwasnotequivalentwiththetreatmentreportedinthepublication.Itisunclearifsimilartreatmentwaswidespread,butifso,species-specificeducationaboutprognosisandtreatmentofbadlyburntlivestockandtheneedforimmediateeuthanasiamayberequiredforsomepartsoftheruralveterinaryprofession. MedicationsandTreatmentsUsed Underthecircumstancesoflimitedaccess,emergency conditionsandlackofaccesstoveterinaryhospitals,treatmentsusedonlivestockinthefieldwererelativelyrudimentary. Treatmentsthatwerepracticalandusedorrecommendedby veterinariansincluded: •Bandaginganddressing•Systemicantibioticuse(especiallywithlong-actingantibioticssuchasoxytetracyclineorpenicillins)•Non-steroidalanti-inflammatories(NSAIDs)such asmeloxicam•Topicaltreatmentscontaininglocalanaesthetic,antisepticsandadrenalinesuchasofflabeluseofTri-SolfenR (https://apvma.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication/14121-prs-tri-solfen.pdf)•Appropriatefeedandwaterandgeneralnursingcare.Therewasnowidespreaduseofmorecomplexandresource intensiveburntreatmentssuchashospitalizationwith skingraftingorskinculture,fluidtreatmentsorsurgery (e.g.,debridement). RiskandProtectiveFactorsforBushfireExposed LivestockInjury Veterinariansprovidedopinionsonwhattheythoughtwere protectivefactorsforbushfire-associatedburnsonlivestock.Theseopinionsallowedhypothesestobedevelopedaboutrisk

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riansprovidedopinionsonwhattheythoughtwere protectivefactorsforbushfire-associatedburnsonlivestock.Theseopinionsallowedhypothesestobedevelopedaboutrisk factorsforburns.Itisimportanttonotethattheseareanecdotalobservationsbyveterinariansandcouldnotbetestedasformalriskfactorsinthisqualitativestudy.However,aseparatequantitative epidemiologicalstudy(acase-controlstudy)whereriskfactorsareformallytestedagainstbushfireinjuryhasbeenconductedconcurrentlyaspartofabroaderresearchproject(BC, Unpublisheddata). ProactiveManagementStepstoProtectStock Akeysteptakenthatprotectedstockwhenfirearrivedon farmwasmovingstocktoasuitablelocationwherebushfire waslesslikelytoimpactthem.Thismayincluderegularly movingstockonafarmasfirefrontscomefromdifferent directions.Suitablelocationsweregenerallyonthesamefarmforlargerproducersbutcouldbeoff-farmtonearbycattleholdinginfrastructuresuchassaleyardsforsmallerhobbyfarmers.Asoneveterinarianreported:Shekeptmovingaroundit[thefire].Shehadmovedtheanimalsmultipletimesandnotoneofheranimalswasaffected,andshe hadquiteafewstock.[IV3]Asuitablelocationincluded: •adairyyardorcattleyardwherecattlecouldbetightlyheld andwheresprinklerscouldbeactivated.•barecontainmentpaddockswithveryshortgrassthatwere awayfromwoodyvegetation.•lush,irrigatedpaddockswithgreengrass.•paddocksthatwereploughedtoremovegrassinpreparation ofthefire.Intheselocations,firecouldnotprogressduetolackoffuelandhencestockwereprotectedfromburns.Apracticalimpedimenttoimplementingthisapproachwashavingadequatenoticeofwhenafirewouldarrive.Asan example,oneveterinariannotedwhathappenedinavalley duringapreviousfire. Actually,theIndigoValleyFirethatwasahotwindyday,and fast-movinggrassfirethatstartedwithoutanywarningoranything

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hathappenedinavalley duringapreviousfire. Actually,theIndigoValleyFirethatwasahotwindyday,and fast-movinggrassfirethatstartedwithoutanywarningoranything likethat.Andtheupperpartofthefire,whichisprobablytheareaIspentmostofmytimein,therewerequitealargenumberof propertieswithburntstockupthevalleybecausethat’sthewaythatthefirewent.Butasyoumovedupthevalley,therewereveryfew propertieswithburntstock.AndIthinkthatthefireactivityallthewaythroughthevalleyprobablywouldhavebeenthesamebecause theonlythingthatstoppedthefirewasitgottotheendofthevalleyattheendoftheday.Andthentherewasasortofachangeinwind andalittlebitofrain,andthatkindofpulleditup. Butallthatafternoon,thefirebasicallytravelledupthevalleyatasimilarsortofintensity.Andsotheonlydifferencecouldbethatthepeoplethatlivenearthestartofthefirehadlesstimetodo somethingaboutpreparingtheirstockfromtheonesfurtherupthevalley. [IV2]Thislackofwarningwasaparticularconcernincrossborder areaswhereseparatejurisdictionalfireauthoritiesweremanagingfireeithersideoftheborder.InVictoriaintheupperMurray, farmersclosetotheNSWborderdidnotreceivewarningofthe firesapproachandhencehadlesstimetoprepareforthefire.Otherprotectivemanagementactionsdiscussedincludedtraditionalfiremanagementactivitiessuchasfirebreaks,backburning,activelyfightingfirewithwaterandmuchearlier preparationwithprescribedburning(e.g.,previousyear).Providingstockaccesstopaddockswithoutwoodyvegetationandwithdrainagelinesandbroadgullies(moistareas)wherefirecouldpassoverthemwerealsoreportedtobeprotective. RiskFactorsforLivestockBurning Unsurprisingly,thetype,amountandproximityofvegetation aroundlivestockwerereportedtobestronglyinfluentialriskfactorstolivestockbeingburnt.Theproximityofwoody vegetation,especiallyforestedareawasastrongindicatorthat

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vestockwerereportedtobestronglyinfluentialriskfactorstolivestockbeingburnt.Theproximityofwoody vegetation,especiallyforestedareawasastrongindicatorthat FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org8February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock thefirewouldbemoreintense,fastermovingandriskierfor livestock.Aveterinarianreportedthat:Yeah.Imean,thepropertieswhereweeuthanisedeverythingwerethosebushblocksorwhereeverythingdecidedtorunintothe bush.[IV2]Landscapeswithhillsanduneventopographywherefirecould advancequicklyuphillwererisky.Inadditionthesesortof areas,arehardertomanageforfirerisk(suchasharderto controlwoodyweedgrowth)andhardertomusterstockfrom atshortnotice.Anotherriskfactorwaswherestockweretrappedandcouldnotmaneuveraroundafire.Forexample,gullieswith thickblackberryinfestationsimpededescape,asdidfences,andsmallpaddocks. Chance Weatherconditionswerereportedtobeveryinfluentialonthe fireintensity,andhencetherisktostock.Averyhot,dryand windydayleadtomoreintensefires.Therefore,theweather conditionsthatcoincidedwithafirereachingafarmimpacted theseverityofstockdamage,largelyduetoacomplexinteractionofproximitytofire,speedoffire,randomevents(e.g.,spotting)andweatherconditions.Thereisoftennoapparentpredictable patterntothisinteraction,sotosomeextentchanceplayedapartinwhetherornotstockwereinjured.Asoneveterinariannotedaboutafarmingareabeingthreatenedbyfire: They’vegotarangeandtherangekindofrunsatthebackofthem andtheywouldhavebeenfacedwithfire.Theymusthavehadtwo orthreeweeksoffire.ButIdothinktheyweretheywerelucky.I thinkthewholetimetheyhadtobeveryalert.Theyweredoingalotofcontainmentactivity,andIthinkyou(andnottosayitwasn’t stressfulbecauseitwasconstantforweeksonend)butitalways justseemtobethatasitkindofwasgettingcloser,thewindwouldchange,andthensortofpushitaway.Firecomedownandthen pushaway.And,youknow,alotofthemwereexpectingatsome pointthey’regoingtohaveareallybadday.Soconstantlyalertto thatverybadday,buttheyjustdidn’thappentogetoneofthose

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d,youknow,alotofthemwereexpectingatsome pointthey’regoingtohaveareallybadday.Soconstantlyalertto thatverybadday,buttheyjustdidn’thappentogetoneofthose days. [IV1]AnalysisoftheDecision-Making FrameworkVeterinariansUsedtoDecide WhattoDoWithBushfire-InjuredLivestock Whiletherewaslittledataprovidedbytheveterinarianson theproportionofburntstockthatweretreatedandrecovered, dataontheproportionofdeadstockthatdiedofbushfire injurieswasavailablefromonedistrict.Ofthesestockdeadduetobushfires,itappearedthat12%ofcattleand23% ofsheepwereeuthanizedbygovernmentstaffratherthan dyingfromjustfireinjuries.Thisindicatesthatthedecisiontoeuthanizestockisanimportantdecisionforproducers, andonelargelymadeonrecommendationsoftheattending governmentveterinarians.Itisimportantbecauseeuthanizinglivestockhasfinancialandwelfareimpactsonfarmers,butnoteuthanizinglivestockcanhavewelfareimpactsforlivestock.Itisthusimportanttounderstandthedecision-makingprocessof attendingveterinarians.Theoreticallythereareseveralstrategiesthatcanbeimplementedtomanagebushfireinjuredlivestock.Seesectionabove Strategicoptionsavailable.However,inpractice,twopathwaysweregenerallypursued,immediateeuthanasiaor retentionandtreatmentonthefarm,withsalvageslaughterrarelydeemedappropriate.Therefore,thissectionfocusesonthesetwomostcommonstrategies.Threethemeswereidentifiedbymostveterinariansthatappeartoexplainhowassessingveterinariansdecidedona treatmentstrategy.Theseare: •Pre-existingbeliefs.•Observationsofpathologyandclinicalsignsandlevelof prognosticdoubt.•Assumptionsaboutthefuture.Theyaredescribedalongwithsub-themesinfollowingsections.Pre-existingBeliefs Thisthemeconsiderssomebeliefsanddutiesofattending

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Assumptionsaboutthefuture.Theyaredescribedalongwithsub-themesinfollowingsections.Pre-existingBeliefs Thisthemeconsiderssomebeliefsanddutiesofattending veterinariansthatmayaffectapplicationoftreatmentstrategiesandthatareindependentofpathology.Thatis,itisnotasimple matterofassessingtheabilityofaburntanimaltorecover,ratheritisalsoacomplexdecisionbasedonnon-biologicalfactors associatedwithclinicaltraining,societalandethicalbeliefs,andexperience. Welfare Veterinariansfeltethicallythateuthanasiawasthebestcoursetopursueforseverelybushfire-injuredaffectedlivestock,eveniftheycouldsurvive.Asoneveterinarianstated: Iftherewasanything,ifIthoughtsomethingwasunlikelyto survive,Ireallyencouragepeopletouseeuthanasia.Ithinkthatgreatestgifttogive.Wecouldn’thavesomethingstandingtheresuffering. [IV6]Nodefinitionofsufferingwasprovidedbyinterviewed veterinarians.However,manyveterinariansreportedthat livestockownersfeltthesameway.Thisindicatesthatthe welfareofanimalsisabroadersocietalconsideration.Forexample:Alotoftheeuthanasiahappenedbeforewecouldgetoutthere,by localpeople.[IV2]However,akeyissuewasthatnon-veterinariansinvolvedwithassessingstock(forexampleafarmerassessingtheirown livestock)wereperceivedtotendtowardunder-estimatingtheseverityoftheinjuriesintheearlystages.Theseindividualswouldnotrealizetheseverityofinjuriesthatwouldlikely developovertimeasinjuriesbecamemoreapparent(e.g.,asskinsloughedetc.).Insummary,despitemanystockpossiblybeingabletosurvivefires,veterinariansoftenrecommendedeuthanasia: FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org9February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock TherewereplentyIthinkthatgotburntandsignificantlybadly burnedthatwouldhavesurvived,butitjustwouldhavebeen awful. [IV6]ObservationsofPathologyandClinicalSignsand LevelofPrognosticDoubt DecisionPoints(CriteriaforEuthanasiaVerseTreatment) Veterinariansdiscussedwhattheythoughtweresomeclinicalcriteriathatcouldbeusedtodecidewhethertotreatoreuthanizebushfireaffectedlivestock.Theseinclude: •Hooves:Wheretheexaminationoccurredquicklyafterafire(e.g.,1 dayafterthefire)andbeforefullprogressionofpathology,thekeycriterionwasdamagetothecoronaryband.Euthanasia wasrecommendedifthedamagewassignificantenoughthat itcouldorwouldleadtoseparationofthehoofandskinof legandlatersloughingofthehoof.Significantdamageincludedcrackingandsevereburnsorinflammationofthecoronary band.Asmostexaminationsoccurredquicklyafterfires(e.g.,within1 2daysofinjury)beforefulldevelopmentofpathology,tosomethisassessmentreliedonexperienceandwhatmay happentothehoofinthefuture.Experienceoftenincluded aveterinarian’spreviousexperiencetreatingbushfireaffectedlivestockoradvicefrommoreseniorveterinarians.Thatis,prognosticorpredictivethinkingwasemployedtodetermine howthepathology(especiallyseparationofthehoof)may developandguideadviceforeuthanasia.Ifpathologyhadtimetoprogressbeforeexamination(i.e.,examinedafter3 4days)thenthehoofsattachmenttothefootwasthekeycriteria.Ingeneral,movementofthehoofrelativetothefootwasanindicationthatitwaslikelythehoofwould sloughoff.Inmoreseverecaseswherehooveshadsloughedoff,thiswasanindicationforimmediateeuthanasia.Insummary,allveterinarianswereawarethattherewouldbeaprogressionofclinicalsignsovertime.However,therewasdoubtinsomecircumstancesastohowbadthepathologymaybeonce timehadpassed(i.e.,howthehoofburnswouldprogress).In

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ionofclinicalsignsovertime.However,therewasdoubtinsomecircumstancesastohowbadthepathologymaybeonce timehadpassed(i.e.,howthehoofburnswouldprogress).In general,itappearedaprecautionaryprinciplewasappliedand itwasassumedthatsevereburnstothecoronarybandwould leadtohoofsloughingandthuslivestockshouldbeeuthanized.Itappearedthatthisassumptionaboutfuturepathologywasa criticaldecisionpoint,butthesedecisionshadtobemadewithoutaclearprognosticindicatororwithoutcertaintybytheassessingveterinariansinsomeinstances. •Skinburns(depthandthickness)Severalveterinariansreportedtheyusedexistingdepartmentalguidesforeuthanasiabasedonskinburns.Forexampleif5 10%ormoreofananimalwasburnttofullskinthicknessthen theywouldrecommendeuthanasia.However,thereportedrangethatleadtoeuthanasiainthe2019/2020bushfiresvariedfrom5to20%.Anditwasclearthatmanyveterinarianssawanimals thatsurvivedwithsignificantlygreaterproportionsofthebodyburnt(e.g.,50%).Severalveterinariansexceededtheavailableguidelinesofproportionofbodyburntbasedontheirclinical judgementoftheanimal’swelfarecompromiseandcapacityto recover,especiallyiftherewasnoinsurancecoverageinplaceforbushfireaffectedlivestock.Thispresentedveterinarianswithanethicaldilemma,tofindtherightbalancebetweentheir professionalobligationtopreventpainandsufferinginanimals, yettoalsoprotectthefinancialviabilityandwelfareofthefarmerswhichtheyassist.Thethicknessoftheskinburnwasalsoimportant.Superficialburnswereviewedmorefavourably,butiftheburnswerefull thicknessthenitwasconsideredmoreconservatively(i.e.,weremorelikelytobeculled).Althoughtheinteractionbetweensizeofburnanddepthofburnwasimportant,therewasnosimplecriteriaforculling reportedthatcombinedbothdepthandareaofburn. BiologicalAbilitytoRecoverFromBurnsCanBeHigh

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anddepthofburnwasimportant,therewasnosimplecriteriaforculling reportedthatcombinedbothdepthandareaofburn. BiologicalAbilitytoRecoverFromBurnsCanBeHigh Veryseverelyburntanimalsoftendiedatthetimeofthefiresorshortlyafter.However,therewereaproportionofsubstantiallyburntanimalsthatwerenotassessedandeuthanizedatthetimeofthefires.Insteadtheysurvivedbushfireburnsasevidencedbybeingpresentedforexaminationforthefirsttimemanyweeks afterthefires.Thisindicatesthatmanystockcouldpotentiallyrecoverfrombushfireburns,eveniftheyweresevere. IsawonecowthatIsawthreeweeksafterthefire.Shehadbeen truckedelsewhere,shouldn’thavebutshewas,threeweeksafterthefireandshehadscarringthatitwasquiteobviousthatshe’dhad deepburnstoonesideofherbody.Probably50%.Washealing amazingly.Ithinkitwouldhavebeenfullthickness.Ithadstartedgranulatingandwasstartingtocontractalreadyandcomeinfrom thesides....... AndIthinkthatanimal,ifI’dseenheronthedayofimpact,I probablywouldhaveeuthansed.Itwasaninterestingmomentto metogo,well,actually,theycanheal.AndIsupposethat’strueofburns,butmaybenotsomuchonfeet,butonskin,solongasthey don’tgetinfected,theywillheal. [IV1]Similarobservationswerereportedbyseveralofthe veterinariansinterviewed.Thus,itisapparentthatmanybadlyburntanimalsdohaveabiologicalabilitytorecover,especiallyfromextensiveskinburns.However,inmostcaseswherethesecattlewereobservedshortlyafterbeingburnt,assessingveterinarianswouldelecttoeuthanizestock,ratherthantreatstock. ExperienceandInformationSourcesforAttending Veterinarians Whilstveterinarianswereexperiencedinruralpractice, competentandcapable,severalreportedtheyhadlittle experiencewithbushfireaffectedlivestockandinrecognizing

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lstveterinarianswereexperiencedinruralpractice, competentandcapable,severalreportedtheyhadlittle experiencewithbushfireaffectedlivestockandinrecognizing thepathologyofbushfireburns.Thatis,severalveterinarianswereattendingtheirfirstfires.TheirsourcesofinformationonprognosiswerelimitedtoGovernmentDepartmentalguides ontreatmentofbushfireaffectedlivestockanddiscussions withmoreexperiencedveterinarians.WhilstDepartmental guidesareusefuldocuments,theyarebasedonasmallnumber ofcontributingindividualsandanecdotalexperiencewith FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org10February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock littleresearchbasebehindthem.Similarlythesamesortof informationwasprovidedbyexperiencedcolleagueswho alsocouldnotgenerallyattendfireswithveterinariansduetoresourceconstraints.Thus,someveterinariansweremakingdecisionswithonlyatheoreticalunderstandingofbushfireaffectedstock,and nopracticalexperienceofprognosis.Thistendedtolead veterinarianstoeuthanizelivestockasaprecautionarymeasuretoavoidpossibleadversewelfareoutcomes.Withgreaterexperienceinfuture,severalveterinariansmaynothaverecommendedashighaproportionoflivestockbeeuthanized.Forexample,one veterinarianspokeaboutrelyingonDepartmentalguidesuntiltheywereexperiencedandthenusingtheirownexperiencein parttoguideprognosisanddecisionmakingbymorerefined categorizationofaffectedlivestock:IlookedataDPIdocument.Youknow,maybeDPIwassuggesting, ifyou’vegotmorethan5to10%ofthecowburnt,thenyouhad tocullitforafullthicknessburn.Particularlyifit’safullthicknessburn.Yes,thefullthicknessburnswerecoveringonesideofthecow,soIdeemthat50%offullthickness.Soyou’reagonernomatter whetherornotyou’reahumaninintensivecare,hospitalbedor you’reacow. AndthenIsupposethefurtherintoitIgot,maybethemorelenientIbecame.Butyouthinkyouknow,yetthemoreyousee,themore youstarttotryandsortofgetyourcategoryandthenyoustart tounconsciouslyputanimalsonthescalewithinthatcategory.Ialwaysendupdoingthesamewithwelfarecasesaswell.Youknow, you’vegotahighriskoneanimal,andthenyou’vegotisnotquite asbadorworse,butit’snotahighrisktwo,soyeah,scalearound thatwhethertheyaregoingtogetculledornot.[IV5]SummaryofthemeDefinedpathologicalindicatorsofwhenburntlivestockshouldbeeuthanizedwereuseful,althoughtheapplicationofprognosticindicatorswascomplicatedbythe

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aryofthemeDefinedpathologicalindicatorsofwhenburntlivestockshouldbeeuthanizedwereuseful,althoughtheapplicationofprognosticindicatorswascomplicatedbythe gradualprogressionofsignsoverseveraldays.Thatis,pathologymaybeverysubtleinthefirstdaysafterfireexposureand livestockmaynotbeclearlyidentifiedasbeinginasevere categoryinitially.Inaddition,someattendingveterinarianswereunavoidablyinexperiencedatassessingburntlivestock(asfiresarerare),althoughtheirexperienceincreasedrapidlyovertime.Thesefactorsledtosomeuncertaintyontheprognosisforsomeburntlivestock.Whereuncertaintyoccurred,insomeinstancesveterinariansculledsomelivestockonaprecautionarybasis.Clearly,asmanylivestockcansurvivewithsevereburns,somecullingthatoccurredwasforreasonsotherthanabiological abilitytorecover(seenextthemesbelow). AssumptionsAbouttheFuture Indecidingonatreatmentpathwayvariouspractical considerationswererelevanttoveterinarians.Mostlythesewereinferencesaboutthefuture,madebyattendingveterinarians.CostsandResources(IncludingHuman)toTreat Ingeneralveterinariansbelievedintensivetreatmentofanimalswasimpracticalformanybushfire-affectedlivestockandinsteadchoseeuthanasiaforstockthatmayotherwisehaverecoveredwithintensivetreatment.Thatis,theywereseekingtoavoidincurringfuturehumanandfinancialcostsonbehalf ofproducers.Successfultreatmentofburntstockisoftentime-consumingandrequiresgreateffort,andmostlivestockownershadmany responsibilitiesanddifficultiesafterthefires.Thatis,they mayhavehaddeceasedfamilymembers,theirhouseburnt down,extensiveinfrastructuredamageontheirfarm,accesstoservicesimpeded(e.g.,veterinaryservices)andfinanciallosses.Thispracticallylimitedthetimethatlivestockownerscould spendonintensivenursingofbushfireaffectedstock.Without

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d(e.g.,veterinaryservices)andfinanciallosses.Thispracticallylimitedthetimethatlivestockownerscould spendonintensivenursingofbushfireaffectedstock.Without time,moneyandthementalresourcesavailabletoconducttherequiredtreatments,thentheprobabilityofappropriatenursingandtreatmentofstockwasreduced,andthealternativewas euthanasiaoflivestock.Forexampleasoneveterinarianstated:Absolutely,somewerekeenasmustardtotreat,whateverneededtobedone.Sowethrewthebookatit.Acoupleofthecattlepeople well,theywerenotinterested,liketheyhadlosthalfthesheds,thehouse,theywere,youknow,moreconcernedwiththefacttheywerealive.And,youknowmaybegettingsomehaytotheonesthatwere alive.[IV5]Thesuccessfultreatmentofbushfire-affectedlivestockiscomplexandhighlyskilledbutlittleresearchedwithmostinformationavailableforthetreatmentofgeneralburnsinotherspeciessuchascompanionanimalsandhorses( 31 35 ).Mostveterinariansassessinglivestockweregovernmentveterinariansandhad theskills.However,thegeneralpolicyfortheorganizationsemployingtheseveterinarianswasthattheydonotoffer medicinesandtreatmentstolivestock,insteadtheysimplyassess,adviseontreatmentandassistineuthanasiaofstock.Medicinesandtreatmentsareinsteadofferedbyprivateveterinarians,whicharetypicallyanexpensetoalivestockownerandarenotalways accessibleafterafire.Thus,lackofaccessorabilitytopayforveterinaryservicestendedtobeanimpedimenttotreatmentoflivestock,ifnottoassessmentandeuthanasia.Notwithstandingthis,therewererarereportsofsuccessfultreatmentoflivestock.Forexample,inoneinstanceaveterinarynursewasabletostayatabushfireaffectedfarmforweeksand nursegeneticallyimportantramswhoeventuallyrecoveredandweresubsequentlyfertile.Thiswassummarizedbyaveterinarianwhoobservedthetreatment:AndImean,thethingthathelpedwiththatwasthatshehada

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ventuallyrecoveredandweresubsequentlyfertile.Thiswassummarizedbyaveterinarianwhoobservedthetreatment:AndImean,thethingthathelpedwiththatwasthatshehada vetnursefriendwhostayedwithher,whodidallthetreatments. Managedtogetfreeantibioticsordonatedandgotsomepainrelief andwasabletochangebandagesandthings.Andwesawsheep inthatthatyouknow,theydidsloughtheirhooves,buttheyweremanagedwithbandaging.Andtheyactuallyregrewthosehooves. Soyouknowitispossibletodoit.Butitsverytimeconsumingandveryexpensive.[IV7]VeterinaryAccesstoFarms Duringthefires,accesstofireaffectedfarmswasrelativelylimitedduetosafetyrestrictions,andveterinaryresourceswerestretchedduetothenumberofaffectedfarmsineachfire-affectedregion. Thismeantthatveterinarianstriedtolimitvisitstoasinglevisitperfarmforpragmaticreasons,asfutureaccessandresourcesto FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org11February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock attendthefarmonmultipleoccasionsmaybelimited.Sometimesthiswasnotthecase,withsomefarmsreceivingmultiplevisitswhenpossibleandrequired.Inaddition,veterinarianstriedtoreachfarmswithinthefirstdayafterafiretooptimizewelfare outcomes(reducingthepossibilityofnegativewelfarestateswhileawaitingveterinaryassessment)forfireaffectedlivestock.Thatis,iftherewerelivestockrequiringeuthanasia,itwasbettertodothisassoonaspossibletoreduceanypossiblelivestock suffering.Forexample,aninterviewedveterinarianstated:Tomethatwasdrawingoutaverylong,painfulprocess.Iguessmy theorywasgohard,goearlyandthenhavethatjobdoneto,like, don’thavetokeepgoingbackforreturnvisits.[IV2]However,duetothetimetakenfortheworstpathologyto develop,thismeantthatwithasingleandearlyvisit,decisionmakingonwhattodowithanimalswasbasedonsomewhat incompleteinformation.Thisisexploredfurtherbelow. AttitudeandAbilityofOwners Severalveterinariansreportedtheattitude,resilienceandabilityoflivestockownerstoprovidethecarerequiredforsuccessfultreatmentwasacriteriontheyusedtodecideonwhether treatmentshouldbepursuedorwhetherlivestockshould beeuthanized.Forexample: It’salittlebitofsummingupwhattheproducersarelike?Whatthey’regoingtobeabletomanagehowwellyouthinkthatthey’regoingtobeabletodoitplushowmuchtheyknowaboutanimals andtreatmentalone?ButItendtotakeafairlyhardapproach.It’s abitofacaseofifindoubt,takeitoutonthefirstday. [IV2]Asafurtherexamplefromanotherveterinarian: ....likeiftheyweretootraumatised,theycouldn’thelpthemselvesletaloneanimals. [IV5]PracticalConsiderations Veterinariansconsideredvariouspracticalfeaturesinanygivenscenario,todeterminewhethertreatmentwaslikelytobe possiblethesubsequentdaysorweeks.Forexample,many farmslostcattleyardswhentheyburntandhadnoability

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venscenario,todeterminewhethertreatmentwaslikelytobe possiblethesubsequentdaysorweeks.Forexample,many farmslostcattleyardswhentheyburntandhadnoability tophysicallyyardandtreatinjuredlivestockadequately.Thismeantthateuthanasiaforseverelyaffectedstockwasamore practicalsolution.Otherpracticalconsiderationsincludewhetherownersoflivestockhadinsurancepoliciesforburntlivestock.Euthanasiawasmorelikelyiflivestockownershadinsuranceforaffected livestockasitreducedthefinancialimpactonthelivestock owner.Severalveterinariansmentionedinsuranceasan influentialaspecttodecisionmaking. Althoughitprobablyshouldn’tmakeadifference,butit’salwaysalittlebiteasiertodothatwhenyouasktheowneroftheanimalif thestockareinsured. [IV2]SummaryofThematicAnalysis:Conservative DecisionMaking Therewerecomplexfactorsimpactingdecisionmakingabout howtomanageburntlivestock.Whilewelfarewasoneoftheprimaryconsiderations,itappearedthattherewasattimesconservativedecisionmaking whendecidinghowtotreatmoderatelyorseverelyaffected livestock.Treatmenttendedtoeuthanasiaasveterinarianswereriskaverse(e.g.,welfare)andhadvariouspracticalconsiderationstotakeintoaccount.Manystockmayhavesurvived theirbushfireinjuriesbutforcomplexreasons(especially welfare)theywereinsteadeuthanizedwithouttreatment beingattempted.Inparticular,complexinterconnectedissuesofgradualprogressionofpathologywithearlyassessmentofstock afterbeingburnt,limitedaccess(i.e.,difficultyre-attendingstock),limitedveterinaryresources,professionaldesireandresponsibilitiestoalleviatesufferingcausedconservativedecisionmakingbyassessingveterinarians.Forexample,aveterinarianwhovisitedafarmandsawstockthatmaybeabletoberetained onthefarmwithtreatment,butwheretherewasariskof

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ingbyassessingveterinarians.Forexample,aveterinarianwhovisitedafarmandsawstockthatmaybeabletoberetained onthefarmwithtreatment,butwheretherewasariskof furtherdeclineintheirclinicalstatus,weresometimesmorelikelytoeuthanizethelivestockinquestion,ratherthanrecommendtreatmentofthestockandobservewhathappensoversucceedingdays.Perhapsthiscouldbephrasedastheassessingveterinariansappliedaprecautionarywelfareprincipleandeuthanizedstock earlyintheprogressionofpathology.Thislikelyleadtosome limitedexcesseuthanasiaoflivestock,similartofindingsfrompreviousresearch( 18 ),butreducedwelfareimpactsandenabledpragmaticresourceallocation.Asoneveterinarianstated: Iguessmytheorywasgohard,goearly. [IV6]DecisionMakingModel Whilstthereareseveralstrategictreatmentoptionsavailableforbushfireinjuredlivestock(seesection StrategicOptionsAvailable ),thereweretwomainoptionsemployedinmost situationsbymostveterinarians:Immediateeuthanasiaortreatandretainonthefarm(eitherretentionfornormalproductionorlaterculling).Wepresentasimplemodelthatrepresentsthe decision-makingprocessofthemajorityofveterinariansthatwereinterviewedforthesetwooptions(treatoreuthanasia).SeeFigure2forasummary,butthedecision-makingpathwayisoutlinedintextbelow.Thefirstconsiderationwhendecidingtoeuthanizeortreatwastheseverityofpathology.Mildlyinjuredanimalsare notconsideredinthemodelastheyweregenerallytreated simplyonfarmandretained.Severelyburntanimalswere euthanizedimmediately.Thedifficultdecisionpointwasifan animalwasmoderatelyinjured.Iftheanimalhadmoderate burnsthentheanimalcouldbeconsideredfortreatmentand retentionoreuthanasiaonthefarm.However,evenmoderatelyburntlivestockwouldbeeuthanizediftheownersdidnot havesufficientpersonalresources(emotional,timeormoney)

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ntionoreuthanasiaonthefarm.However,evenmoderatelyburntlivestockwouldbeeuthanizediftheownersdidnot havesufficientpersonalresources(emotional,timeormoney) FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org12February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock FIGURE2|Adecisionmakingprocessfortreatmentoreuthanasiabyassessingveterinariansattendingmoderatelyorseverelybushfireinjuredlivestock. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org13February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock orpracticalresources(e.g.,yards)totreattheanimaland relievesuffering.Animportantconsiderationwaswhetherassessingveterinarianshadtheabilitytore-attendandreassessmoderatelyburntlivestockfollowinganearlyvisit,earlyduringthe developmentofpathology.Thatis,iftherewasuncertainty abouttheprogressionofpathology(e.g.,marginalcases)and veterinarianscouldnotre-attendtore-assess,thencautiousdecisionmakingaboutleavingstockaliveandinjuredweremadewithveterinariansmorelikelytorecommendeuthanasia.To someextentveterinarianexperiencemadeadifferencehere. Inexperiencedvetsthatwereuncertainofprogressweremore likelytorecommendeuthanasiainthefaceofuncertaintyto mitigatetheriskofsubsequentwelfareissues.However,aftertheseconsiderations,formoderatelyburntlivestock,thekeyconsiderationsweretheextentoffeetdamageandtheextentanddepthofskinburns. DISCUSSION Thisresearch,whichbothdescribescurrentpracticesin managementofbushfire-injuredlivestockandanalysesthe decision-makingbehindthesepractices,hasilluminated challengesintheimmediatepost-fireperiod.Keyareasidentifiedincludeeffectiveprognosticassessmentforlivestockaswellashowtomakedifficultdecisionstoaddresscompromisedanimal welfarewhilebalancingtheneedsofthebroaderfarmsystem thattheseanimalsexistwithin.Withclimatechangeassociatedwithincreasedincidenceofbushfires( 7 , 8 ),thisstudymakesanimportantcontributiontothepresentlysparseresearchintobushfireimpactsonlivestock,needediftheeffectsofbushfires

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ncidenceofbushfires( 7 , 8 ),thisstudymakesanimportantcontributiontothepresentlysparseresearchintobushfireimpactsonlivestock,needediftheeffectsofbushfires onlivestockaretobeamelioratedinthefuture.Thisresearchalsoprovidessomehypothesesabouttheriskfactorsforlivestockinjuryduringbushfiresthatcouldbeinvestigatedfurther.Itisalsoimportanttorealizethatmanyburntlivestockhaveabiologicalabilitytosurvivewithsevereinjury,asevidencedbystocksurvivingandhealingwithnoassessmentandtreatmentformanyweeksafterfireshadoccurred.Forexample,somelivestockwithsignificantportionsoftheirbodiesburnttofullthicknesswereobservedbyveterinariansforthefirsttimemanyweeksafterfires.Thishighlightstheneedtomakedecisionsabouteuthanasiaonwelfaregroundsforseverelyinjuredanimals,notontheabilityofananimaltosurvive,asundoubtedlyaproportioncansurvivesevereinjuries.Anethicaldilemmaarisingforthoseassessingthelivestockis:underwhatcircumstancesitisreasonablytoallowananimaltorecoverratherthanbedestroyed,andwhat measures(suchasnursingtreatmentandappropriatepainrelief)arenecessarytomitigateanimalwelfarecompromise.Furtherinvestigationofthisdilemmamaybehelpfulbutwasbeyondthescopeofthepresentstudy.Thedecisiononwhethertotreatoreuthanizemoderatelybushfireinjuredlivestockwasgenerallyadifficultonewith impactsonthefarmerswhoownedthestockincludingsevere financialloss.However,injuredlivestockthataresuffering excessively,thatcannotforpracticalreasonsreceiveanalgesia,orareunlikelytorecoverrequireeuthanasiaforwelfarereasons.Itisimportanttonotethatthereweareawareofnopresentresearch directlyinvestigatingmanaginglivestockpainassociatedwithburns.Inthisstudy,themainpainreliefavailableforprescriptionwereNSAIDs,andoff-labeluseoftopicallocalanaesthetics designedforroutinehusbandryprocedures.Therewereno

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isstudy,themainpainreliefavailableforprescriptionwereNSAIDs,andoff-labeluseoftopicallocalanaesthetics designedforroutinehusbandryprocedures.Therewereno instancesoftheuseofopioidanalgesics,whichareindicatedforanalgesiaofsevereburnsinhumanandveterinarymedicine( 32 ).Furtherresearchintothesuitabilityandpracticalityofanalgesicssuitableforlivestockwithburninjuriesthatareintendedforhumanconsumption,includingtheimportanceofpainrelieffor evenmildburninjuries,wouldbebeneficialtoguideprescribinginemergencyconditions.Consistentwithotherliterature( 18 ),assessmentoflivestockandsubsequentrecommendationsforslaughterwereattimes conservative,resultinginalimitedexcesseuthanasiaoflivestock.Thisisnotareflectionoftheassessingveterinarianswho weinterviewed,whoappearedhighlyskilled,professionaland compassionate.Instead,insomecaseseuthanasiamaybe associatedwithresourceconstraints,limitationsinprognosticassessmentandthelikelihoodofprogressionofbushfireinjuriesovertime,andtheneedtoavoidwelfareimpactsonlivestock. Stockassessmentsoccurrapidlyafterfirestoensurethatseverelyburntlivestockcanbeeuthanizedimmediately.However,forlivestockthatareinjuredmoderately,atthisearlystageitmaynotbeapparentiftheirclinicalconditionwillprogresstomeetthecriteriaforimmediateeuthanasiaornot.Atthistimepoint,burninjuriesmaynothaveprogressedtotheirworseclinicalseverity.Concurrently,manyfarmsandlivestockneedassessingand accessislimitedanddangerous,ornotprioritizedbyemergencyauthorities.Inthesecircumstances,veterinariansmayneedtolimitthenumberofvisitstoanysinglefire-affectedfarm.For thesereasons,itappearedthatiftherewasuncertaintyabouttheseverityofinjuries,aprecautionarydecisiontoeuthanizestockimmediatelywassometimestaken,toavoidleavinglivestock

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appearedthatiftherewasuncertaintyabouttheseverityofinjuries,aprecautionarydecisiontoeuthanizestockimmediatelywassometimestaken,toavoidleavinglivestock alivewithprogressinginjuriesthatwillleadtoadversewelfareoutcomesovertime.Farmerswereoftentraumatizedatthis timeandmaynotalwaysbeinapositiontoobjectivelydiscuss decisionmaking.Examiningthedecisionmakingthatoccurred(Figure2),themaindecisionnodethatcanbemodifiedisthere-assessment node.Thatis,veterinariansmaybeabletoassesstheneed foreuthanasiamoreaccuratelyiftheywereabletore-attendtheseanimalsandensurethattheywerenotworseningto anunacceptableclinicalstate.Thesolutionmaytherefore betoprovideadditionalveterinaryresourcesandprioritize veterinaryaccesstofarmstoenablesufficientrepeatvisitstoallowadditionaltimepointstoassesspathologyanditseffect onanimalwelfare.However,practicaldifficultieswillpersist,includingaccessremainingdifficultanddangerous,veterinaryresourcesfrequentlyconstrained,treatmentsexpensiveand labour-intensive,andlivestockownersstillinatraumatizedstate.Theoptionofrevisitingtoreassesspathologybefore euthanasiaisonlyindicatedwhereadequatenursingcare, especiallyappropriatepainreliefandthelaborrequiredto administerit,isavailableforinjuredanimalsintheinterim.Theapparentabsenceofamodernburnclassificationsystemforlivestock,suchasisavailableinsmallanimals( 35 )canlimit FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org14February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock communicationandassessmentoflivestock.Forexample,the communicationofburnsbyveterinariansintheinterviewswaslimitedtofullthicknessandpartialthicknessburns.However,insmallanimals,burnshavebeendividedintoamuchmore granularclassificationsystem,includingsuperficial,superficialpartialthickness,deeppartialthicknessandfullthicknesswithakeyfordermallayersaffected,woundcharacteristicsandhealing.Thedevelopmentofamoregranularclassificationsystemfor livestock,thatwaslinkedtohealingorprognosisandwelfarewouldbeanimportanttoolthatcouldbeusedbyveterinarians whenassessingbushfireaffectedlivestock.Despitethis,the applicationofsuchatoolmaybelimitedonsomefarmswhere theabilitytocloselyassessstockislimitedduetodamagedstockhandlingfacilities.Riskfactorsdiscussedbytheveterinariansthataffectedthepresenceorseverityofbushfireinjuryincludedproximityto woodyvegetation(suchasforest)andfeatureswhichtended totrapstockinfrontofafire(suchasfencesorblackberry infestationsingullies).Chancealsoplayedapart,withthe interactionofwhenafirereachedafarmandtheseverityof weatherconditionsatthattimehavingamajorinfluenceonfireintensityandriskofinjurytolivestock.Conversely,therewereseveralfeaturesthatassessingveterinarianshypothesizedcouldprotectlivestockfrominjury,basedontheirobservations.Oneofthemostimportantfeatureswasanadequatewarningtimeofanimpendingfire.Where thewarningwasadequate,farmerscouldmovestocktosafer areasthusprotectingthemfromfire,orimplementfire-fighting actions.Saferareasforsmallerproducerswereareasofffarm,awayfromthefire.Forlargerproducers,openpaddocksaway fromwoodyvegetationwithshortgrassand/orwaterbodies,orcontainingstockindairyyardsorcattleyards,wereprotective.However,manyfarmerswerenotperceivedtohavebeenable

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yvegetationwithshortgrassand/orwaterbodies,orcontainingstockindairyyardsorcattleyards,wereprotective.However,manyfarmerswerenotperceivedtohavebeenable torespondtothistypeofearlywarningofanapproachingfire, sufficienttoenablelivestocktobemovedtosaferareas.Whilstsomelatewarningtimeswereduetothenatureofthefire (suddenandunexpected),inothercases,firewarningsystems wereinaccurateorslowordidnotassimilateinformationfromnearbyfiresacrossjurisdictionalborders.ThiswasalsoreportedbytheAustralianRoyalCommissionintoNationalNatural DisasterArrangements( 36 ).Therefore,fasterwarningtimeswithaccuratedata,includingacrossjurisdictionalbordersareurgentlyneededduringbushfirestoenableproducerstoprotectstock.Improvementstothesesystemshavebeenrecommended inrecentbushfireinquiries( 37 ).Theserecommendations,ifimplementedwillalsoassistfarmerswithresponsetofiresby enablinglivestockprotectionfromburns.Otherprotective factorsreportedincludedactivefire-fightingapproaches, suchasestablishingfirebreaksbeforeafire,fightingfirewithback-burningorwater,ordefendingstockwithsprinklersandfirehoses.Inadditiontoburnstohooves,skinandotherstructuressuchasteats,acuterespiratorydiseasewasrecognizedbytheseveterinarianswhichmayhaveimportanteffectsonbothanimal welfareandprognosisinaffectedindividuals.Publishedpeer- reviewedresearchonlivestockpathologyandinjuriesduetofireispresentlyextremelylimited.Thisisanimportantgapalthoughunsurprisinggiventheemergencythatbushfirespresent,whereprioritiesappropriatelyincludeprotectionoflifeandassets, preservationofremaininglivestockandemergencymanagementofthewelfareofinjuredlivestock,ratherthanconductof research.Theselimitationsinformedthequalitativedesignofthepresentstudy,whichaimedtocollectdetailedanduseful

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fareofinjuredlivestock,ratherthanconductof research.Theselimitationsinformedthequalitativedesignofthepresentstudy,whichaimedtocollectdetailedanduseful dataaftertheemergency(andthetimeframeformeaningfuldatacollectionfromcarcasses)hadceased.Importantly,ofalltheveterinariansinterviewed,somehavingattendedfiresannuallyfor20years,nonehadeverhadtheopportunitytoconduct aformalpost-mortemexaminationoffire-injuredlivestock, forexampletoexaminerespiratorysystemdamage.Suchbasic informationmayprovideimportantinsightsintoprognosisand possibletreatments,andwhilewehopethiscanbeinvestigatedinfuture,itwouldonlybepracticalwhereveterinaryresourceswereinexcesstoimmediateemergencyresponserequirements.Finally,itisimportanttoconsiderthisresearchinthecontextofAustralia’slivestockpopulation.Despiteverywidespreadfires,thenumberoflivestockdirectlyfire-injuredwassurprisinglymodest.Eveninaseverelyfire-affecteddistrict,wheremany farmsweresubjecttobushfire,only7%ofcattlewerekilled. Whilsttheselossesaresignificant,especiallytoindividual farmers,itisnotlikelytoleadtoalargedeclineinthenationalherd.Thewidespreaddroughtthatpreceededthesefiresarelikelytohavehadmoresignificantimpactsonthenationalherddueto increasedsellingofstockandpoorreproductiverates.Inconclusion,thisresearchsuggeststhatmostbushfireinjuriesinlivestockwereassociatedwithburnstothecommonintegument(especiallyhooves,butalsoskinandassociated structuressuchasteats),althoughacuterespiratorydiseasewasalsorecognized.Basedonveterinarian-reportedriskfactors,keyactionstoprotectlivestockfrombushfirescouldinclude earlierandbetterwarningsaboutwherefiresaresothatstock canbemovedtoprotectedlocations,protectinglivestockwithactivefirefightingtechniquesandmanagementoffuelloads

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andbetterwarningsaboutwherefiresaresothatstock canbemovedtoprotectedlocations,protectinglivestockwithactivefirefightingtechniquesandmanagementoffuelloads toreducetheintensityoffire.However,theunpredictabilityofwhenexactlyfirewillreachafarmandtheseverity ofweatherconditionsatthattimeappearedtoinfluence livestockinjuryrisks,renderingtheideaofpreventingall fire-injurytolivestockveryunlikely.Veterinarydecisionsformanagingmoderatelyinjuredlivestockwerecomplexandat timesuncertain,potentiallyleadingtoprecautionarycullingwhereprognosticassessmentwasuncertain.Prioritizingregularre-examinationsoflivestockafterbushfireinjurymayreduceunnecessaryeuthanasia,providedappropriatenursingcare includingpainreliefcanbeprovided. DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT Therawdatasupportingtheconclusionsofthisarticlewillbe madeavailablebytheauthors,withoutunduereservation. ETHICSSTATEMENT Thestudiesinvolvinghumanparticipantswerereviewed andapprovedbytheUniversityofMelbourne’sHuman FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org15February2022|Volume9|Article790556

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Cowledetal.BushfireImpactsonLivestock ResearchEthicsCommittee(EthicsID2057893.1).Written informedconsentforparticipationwasnotrequiredforthis studyinaccordancewiththenationallegislationandthe institutionalrequirements. AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS BC,MW,andMB-Tcontributedtotheconceptionanddesignof thestudy.BC,JC,HC,andMDcollecteddata.BCanalyzedthe dataandwrotethefirstdraftofthemanuscript.CP,MB-T,and MWmadestrategiccommentsontheanalysisandmanuscript design.Allauthorscontributedtomanuscriptrevisionandreadandapprovedthesubmittedversion. FUNDING ThisresearchwasfundedbyMeat&LivestockAustralia (MLAgrantnumber:B.AHE.2102)andtheCommonwealth GovernmentofAustraliaandweacknowledgethatfunding.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TheauthorsthanktheUniversityofMelbourne’sFacultyof VeterinaryandAgriculturalSciencesHumanEthicsCommitteefortheirfeedbackonstudydesignandethicalconsiderations.Wethanktheveterinarianswhoassistedbyprovidingtheir timeandexpertisewhileconductinginterviews.Theirinsightswereinvaluable.WethankAgricultureVictoriaandNSW LocalLandServicesfortheircooperationintheproject.Anne Meyeristhankedforassistingwithsomekeyreferencesfor thequalitativemethods,andausefulcasestudyfromher ownwork. SUPPLEMENTARYMATERIAL TheSupplementaryMaterialforthisarticlecanbefound

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hsomekeyreferencesfor thequalitativemethods,andausefulcasestudyfromher ownwork. SUPPLEMENTARYMATERIAL TheSupplementaryMaterialforthisarticlecanbefound onlineat:https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2022.790556/full#supplementary-materialREFERENCES1.FilkovAI,NgoT,MatthewsS,TelferS,PenmanTD.ImpactofAustralia’scatastrophic2019/20bushfireseasononcommunitiesandenvironment.Retrospectiveanalysisandcurrenttrends.JSafSciResil.(2020)1:44 56.doi:10.1016/j.jnlssr.2020.06.0092.RichardsL,BrewN,SmithL.2019−20Australianbushfires frequentlyaskedquestions:aquickguide.In:LibraryP,editorCanberra,ACT:DepartmentofParliamentaryServices,ParliamentofAustralia(2020).Availableonlineat:https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/7234762/3.BorchersArriagadaN,PalmerAJ,BowmanDM,MorganGG,JalaludinBB,JohnstonFH.Unprecedentedsmoke-relatedhealthburdenassociatedwiththe2019 20bushfiresineasternAustralia.MedJAustralia.(2020)213:282 3.doi:10.5694/mja2.505454.KotsiosN,TwomeyS.Nationallivestocktollfromragingbushfiresmounts.TheWeeklyTimes.(2020).5.Anon.1270.0.55.003-AustralianStatisticalGeographyStandard(ASGS):Volume3-NonABSStructures,July2016.In:StatisticsABO,editor.Canberra,ACT(2016).6.Anon.7121.0-AgriculturalCommodities,Australia,2017-18.In:StatisticsABO,editor.Canberra,ACT(2019).7.FlanniganMD,KrawchukMA,deGrootWJ,WottonBM,GowmanLM.Implicationsofchangingclimateforglobalwildlandfire.IntJWildlandFire.(2009)18:483 507.doi:10.1071/WF081878.LiuY,StanturfJ,GoodrickS.Trendsinglobalwildfirepotentialinachangingclimate.ForEcolManage.(2010)259:685 97.doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.0029.GeeC,editor.Involvementofveterinaryinspectorsinbushfiresituations.In:VeterinaryInspectorsofNSW1986ConferenceProceedings69thAnnualconference1986.Sydney(1986).10.DieckmannHG,CostaLRR,Martínez-LópezB,MadiganJE.DisasterMedicine:implementationofananimalhealthdatabaseinresponseto

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M.FinalReportoftheNSWBushfireInquiry.Sydney,NSW:NewSouthWalesGovernment(2020).p.436.ConflictofInterest:BC,MB-T,andAHareemployedbythecompanyAusvetPtyLtd. Theremainingauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedintheabsenceofanycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest. Publisher’sNote:Allclaimsexpressedinthisarticlearesolelythoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheiraffiliatedorganizations,orthoseofthepublisher,theeditorsandthereviewers.Anyproductthatmaybeevaluatedinthisarticle,orclaimthatmaybemadebyitsmanufacturer,isnotguaranteedorendorsedbythepublisher. Copyright©2022Cowled,Bannister-Tyrrell,Doyle,Clutterbuck,Cave,Hillman,Plain,Pfeiffer,LaurenceandWard.Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY).Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedtheoriginalauthor(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginalpublicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice.Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththeseterms. FrontiersinVeterinaryScience|www.frontiersin.org17February2022|Volume9|Article790556