nociceptive motor responses

s [108]. The flexion reflex, or nociceptive withdrawal reflex, is a reflex response to a nociceptive stimulus resulting in the withdrawal of a limb or body part from a painful stimulus, which may be abolished by effective local anaesthesia or analgesia. In the setting of tissue injury, the release of chemical mediators such as SP, prostaglandins, and bradykinin involved in the inflammatory response, increase sensitisation of neurons to nociceptive signals resulting in the development of hyperalgesia and a reduction in the threshold for the nociceptive reflex response [109]. Afferent nerve sensitisation resulting in hyperalgesia is considered the primary pathological mechanism underlying the development of post- operative inflammatory pain [10]. The threshold for eliciting the flexion reflex may be clearly measured, including in rats [110], and pigs [111] and used to assess the development of hyperalgesia and the efficacy of anaesthetic or analgesic interventions. The reflex is evoked by stimulation of small calibre A6 or C fibre primary afferents which transmit noxious information. The absence of the reflex response and/or a measurable change in the reflex threshold may be detected using a variety of stimuli including needlestick, heat pads, calibrated or electronic Von Frey Filaments and/or pressure algometry. Von Frey filaments or ‘hairs’ are a set of calibrated filaments that bend when a certain pressure is reached, allowing a reproducible mechanical stimulus to be delivered, graduating from that inducing a light-touch sensation through to a pain-weighted stimulation of skin or tissues. Electronic von Frey anaesthesiometers are also available. Using an electronic von Frey anaesthesiometer, Herskin and Rasmussen [112] have described thresholds of mechanical

…Nociceptive motor responses during piglet castration 5 6 Piglet castration without anaesthesia induces protracted violent struggling and escape 7 behaviour in piglets during the procedure[26]. This piglet motor response is usually…

…Nociceptive motor responses during piglet castration 5 6 Piglet castration without anaesthesia induces protracted violent struggling and escape 7 behaviour in piglets during the procedure[26]. This piglet motor response is usually…

…Reduced nociceptive motor response to the castration procedure (traction on and severing the spermatic cord) was the primary efficacy parameter for pain control dur- ing the procedure in this study. Studies of…

…Reduced nociceptive motor response to the castration procedure (traction on and severing the spermatic cord) was the primary efficacy parameter for pain control dur- ing the procedure in this study. Studies of…

…Reduced nociceptive motor response to the castration procedure (traction on and severing the spermatic cord) was the primary efficacy parameter for pain control dur- ing the procedure in this study. Studies of…

. Clement, C.I.; Keay, K.A.; Owler, B.K.; Bandler, R. Common patterns of increased and decreased fos expression in midbrain and pons evoked by noxious deep somatic and noxious visceral manipulations in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 1996, 366, 495–515. [CrossRef] 63. Haga, H.A.; Lykkjen, S.; Revold, T.; Ranheim, B. Effect of intratesticular injection of lidocaine on cardiovascular responses to castration in isoflurane-anesthetized stallions. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2006, 67, 403–408. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 64. van Lieshout, J.J.; Wieling, W.; Karemaker, J.M.; Eckberg, D.L. The vasovagal response. Clin. Sci. 1991, 81, 575–586. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 65. Burton, A.R.; Birznieks, I.; Bolton, P.S.; Henderson, L.A.; Macefield, V.G. Effects of deep and superficial experimentally induced acute pain on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in human subjects. J. Physiol. 2009, 587, 183–193. [CrossRef] [PubMed] Animals 2022, 12, 2833 24 of 24 66. Raue, J.F.; Tarvainen, M.P.; Kastner, S.B.R. Experimental study on the effects of isoflurane with and without remifentanil or dexmedetomidine on heart rate variability before and after nociceptive stimulation at different MAC multiples in cats. BMC Vet. Res. 2019, 15, 258. [CrossRef] 67. Levy, M.N. Neural control of cardiac function. Bailliere’s Clin. Neurol. 1997, 6, 227–244.

. Clement, C.I.; Keay, K.A.; Owler, B.K.; Bandler, R. Common patterns of increased and decreased fos expression in midbrain and pons evoked by noxious deep somatic and noxious visceral manipulations in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 1996, 366, 495–515. [CrossRef] 63. Haga, H.A.; Lykkjen, S.; Revold, T.; Ranheim, B. Effect of intratesticular injection of lidocaine on cardiovascular responses to castration in isoflurane-anesthetized stallions. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2006, 67, 403–408. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 64. van Lieshout, J.J.; Wieling, W.; Karemaker, J.M.; Eckberg, D.L. The vasovagal response. Clin. Sci. 1991, 81, 575–586. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 65. Burton, A.R.; Birznieks, I.; Bolton, P.S.; Henderson, L.A.; Macefield, V.G. Effects of deep and superficial experimentally induced acute pain on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in human subjects. J. Physiol. 2009, 587, 183–193. [CrossRef] [PubMed] Animals 2022, 12, 2833 24 of 24 66. Raue, J.F.; Tarvainen, M.P.; Kastner, S.B.R. Experimental study on the effects of isoflurane with and without remifentanil or dexmedetomidine on heart rate variability before and after nociceptive stimulation at different MAC multiples in cats. BMC Vet. Res. 2019, 15, 258. [CrossRef] 67. Levy, M.N. Neural control of cardiac function. Bailliere’s Clin. Neurol. 1997, 6, 227–244.

ed rank test was performed for each pixel by assessing the power of the respective frequency at the observed time versus the power of the frequency at baseline. Pixels that either had a p < 0.05 (pooled response to the interdigital pinch) or p < 0.1 (single experimental group, all other stimuli) are shown. Hence, only significant changes that occurred in clusters are discussed. The cluster approach was used because of the low probability of the concentration of spurious false positives in a cluster. Therefore, the strategy was used to define a cluster size [33], i.e., either a 4 s × 2 Hz cluster for the pooled reaction to the interdigital pinch stimulus or a 4 s × 4 Hz cluster for the reaction to other stimuli. The area under the receiver operating curve (AUC) was calculated with 10k-fold bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals to track the changes in the EEG band power over time. If the 95% confidence intervals did not cross the 0.5 line, this result was considered to be significant as long as it was observed in at least at two neighbouring time points. Similar approaches have been used previously [34,35]. MATLAB R2017a (The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, United States) was used for the statistical analysis. For the AUC calculation, additional functions from the measures of the effect size toolbox were used [36]. Different settings were used for the interdigital pinch stimulus and the other noxious stimuli, as a much larger number of samples was available for the interdigital pinch by pooling data from all animals, independent of the treatment groups. Beeswarm plots were generated with the MATLAB plotSpread function. 2.3.2. FOS Protein Four tissue sections per animal were included in the analysis: one section each from spinal cord segments L1, L2, L3 and S1-3. The

…The nociceptive motor response was graded as: Statistical methods 0 = no motor response, 1 = mild motor response, such as a short- Raw data were entered into Microsoft EXCEL 2016 using double-entry…